RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE
	DISINTEGRATION
	HALF-LIFE (years)

Carbon-14
	14C	14N
	5.7 ´ 103

Potassium-40
	40	40Ar 40Ca
	
1.3 ´ 10

Uranium-238
	238U	206Pb
	
4.5 ´ 10

Rubidium-87
	87 b	87 r
	4.9 ´ 10 0

MATERIAL
	SPECIFIC HEAT (Joules/gram • °C)
	
Liquid water
	4.18
	
Solid water (ice)
	2.11
	
Water vapor
	2.00
	
Dry air
	1.01
	
Basalt
	0.84
	
Granite
	0.79
	
Iron
	0.45
	
Copper
	0.38
	
Lead
	0.13

ELEMENT (symbol)
	CRUST
	HYDROSPHERE
	TROPOSPHERE
	
	Percent by mass
	Percent by volume
	Percent by volume
	Percent by volume
	
Oxygen (O)
	46.10
	94.04
	33.0
	21.0
	
Silicon (Si)
	28.20
	0.88
			
Aluminum (Al)
	8.23
	0.48
			
Iron (Fe)
	5.63
	0.49
			
Calcium (Ca)
	4.15
	1.18
			
Sodium (Na)
	2.36
	1.11
			
Magnesium (Mg)
	2.33
	0.33
			
Potassium (K)
	2.09
	1.42
			
Nitrogen (N)
				78.0
	
Hydrogen (H)
			66.0
		
Other
	0.91
	0.07
	1.0
	1.0

Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g
	
Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL

The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov

Reference Tables for Physical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE

Radioactive Decay Data	Specific Heats of Common Materials

K
R
S
9
9
1
Equations

Eccentricity =

distance between foci length of major axis

Properties of Water

distance
Gradient = change in field value

time
Rate of change= change in value

mass
Density = volume

Average Chemical Composition
of Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere

2011 EDITION
This edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in the classroom beginning in the 2011–12 school year. The first examination for which these tables will be used is the January 2012 Regents Examination in Physical Setting/Earth Science.

Eurypterus remipes

New York State Fossil

E

Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State
Interior Lowlands
Grenville Province
(Highlands)
Allegheny Plateau
Erie-Ontario Lowlands
(Plains)
Tug Hill
Plateau
Adirondack
Mountains
Lake Erie
Lake Ontario
Interior
Lowlands
The Catskills
Major geographic province boundary
Landscape region boundary
State boundary
International boundary
Key
N
S
W
0
0
20
40
60
80
Kilometers
Miles
10 20 30 40 50
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	2

elevation 175 m
LAKE
43°
79°
78°
77°
44°
76°
45°75°
74°
73°
45°
44°
43°
42°
73°	41°
40°30'
73°30'	73°
41°
76°
77°
78°
79°
42°
elevation 75 m
LAKE ONTARIO
JAMESTOWN
BUFFALO
ELMIRA
ITHACA
BINGHAMTON
SLIDE MT.
KINGSTON
NIAGARA FALLS
ROCHESTER
SYRACUSE
UTICA
OSWEGO
OLD FORGE
PLATTSBURGH
MT. MARCY
MASSENA
Susquehanna
FINGER
LAKES
P
E
N
N
S
Y
L V A
N
I
A
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Miles
Kilom
RIVERHEAD	72°
WATERTOWN
41°
ALBANY
ERIE
modified from
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
1989
GEOLOGIC PERIODS AND ERAS IN NEW YORK	75°
CRETACEOUS and PLEISTOCENE (Epoch) weakly consolidated to unconsolidated gravels, sands, and clays
LATE TRIASSIC and EARLY JURASSIC conglomerates, red sandstones, red shales, basalt, and diabase (Palisades sill)
ORDOVICIAN	limestones, shales, sandstones, and dolostones	CITY
CAMBRIAN
CAMBRIAN and EARLY ORDOVICIAN sandstones and dolostones
CAMBRIAN and ORDOVICIAN (undifferentiated) quartzites, dolostones, marbles, and schists	74°
intensely metamorphosed; includes portions of the Taconic Sequence and Cortlandt Complex
slightly to intensely metamorphosed rocks of CAMBRIAN through MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN ages
MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC gneisses, quartzites, and marbles
}
}
}
}
}
PENNSYLVANIAN and MISSISSIPPIAN conglomerates, sandstones, and shales	Dominantly
DEVONIAN	limestones, shales, sandstones, and conglomerates	sedimentary
SILURIAN	SILURIAN also contains salt, gypsum, and hematite.	origin	NEW YORK
moderately to intensely metamorphosed east of the Hudson River	Dominantly
metamorphosed
TACONIC SEQUENCE sandstones, shales, and slates	rocks
Lines are generalized structure trends.	Intensely metamorphosed rocks
MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC anorthositic rocks	(regional metamorphism about 1,000 m.y.a.)
N
W
0	20	40	60	80	E
0	0
0	20     40
60     80
Kilometers eters	S
Miles
0 1 0 2 10320 430540     50
0	0	0
Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	3

Surface Ocean Currents
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	4

North American
African
Plate
Canary
Islands
Hot Spot
South
American
Plate
Eurasian
Plate
Iceland
Hot Spot
Scotia
Plate
Sandwich
Plate
St. Helena
Hot Spot
Bouvet
Hot Spot
Complex or uncertain
plate boundary
Mantle
hot spot
Convergent plate boundary
h

Hawaii
Hot Spot
San Andreas
Fault
Juan de
Fuca Plate
Philippine
Plate
i
Yellowstone
Hot Spot
Plate
Cocos
Plate
Galapagos
Hot Spot
Nazca
Plate
Antarctic
Plate
Indian-Australian
Plate
Pacific
Plate
Fiji Plate
Antarctic
Plate
Eurasian
Plate
Easter Island
Hot Spot
Key
NOTE:
Not all mantle hot spots, plates, and
boundaries are shown.
Relative motion at
plate boundary
Divergent plate boundary
(usually broken by transform
faults along mid-ocean ridges)
(subduction zone)
subducting
plate
overriding
plate
Transform plate boundary
(transform fault)
Tectonic Plates
Tasman
Hot Spot
Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	5

M
PARTICLE DIAMETER (cm)
(relative by volume)
MINERAL COMPOSITION
CHARACTERISTICS
INTRUSIVE
(Plutonic)
EXTRUSIVE
(Volcanic)
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION
IGNEOUS ROCKS
non-
crystalline
less than
1 mm
1 mm
to
10 mm
10 mm
or
larger
Dunite
Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust	 Relationship of Transported Particle Size to Water Velocity

SEDIMENTARY ROCK

100.0

SEDIMENTS	10.0

1.0

Boulders 25.6
Cobbles 6.4

Pebbles

METAMORPHIC ROCK

0.1

i
f
p
0.01

IGNEOUS
ROCK	0.001

0.0001

0.2

Sand

0.006

Silt

0.0004
Clay

1000
500
50
100
10
5
1
0.5
0.1
0.05
0.01
MAGMA

STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s)

This generalized graph shows the water velocity needed to maintain, but not start, movement. Variations occur due to differences in particle density and shape.

Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification CRYSTAL SIZE

TEXTURE

Obsidian (usually appears black)

Basaltic glass
Glassy

Non-vesicular

Pumice

Vesicular rhyolite

Rhyolite

Granite

Vesicular andesite

Andesite

Diorite

Scoria

Vesicular basalt

Basalt

Diabase

Peri-Gabbro	dotite

Fine

Coarse

Vesicular (gas pockets)

Non-vesicular

Pegmatite

Very coarse

LIGHTER

LOWER

FELSIC (rich in Si, Al)

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

Potassium feldspar
(pink to white)

Quartz (clear to white)

COLOR

DENSITY

COMPOSITION

Plagioclase feldspar (white to gray)

Biotite (black)

Amphibole (black)

Pyroxene (green)

Olivine (green)

DARKER

HIGHER

MAFIC
(rich in Fe, Mg)

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	6

PYROXENE
NONFOLIATED
Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

TEXTURE

Clastic (fragmental)

GRAIN SIZE

Pebbles, cobbles, and/or boulders embedded in sand, silt, and/or clay

Sand
(0.006 to 0.2 cm)

Silt
(0.0004 to 0.006 cm)

Clay
(less than 0.0004 cm)

COMPOSITION

Mostly quartz, feldspar, and clay minerals; may contain fragments of other rocks and minerals

COMMENTS

Rounded fragments

Angular fragments

Fine to coarse

Very fine grain

Compact; may split easily

ROCK NAME

Conglomerate

Breccia

Sandstone

Siltstone

Shale

MAP SYMBOL

.     .     .     .
.     .     .     .     . . . . . . . . . .

CHEMICALLYAND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

TEXTURE

Crystalline

Crystalline or bioclastic

Bioclastic

GRAIN SIZE

Fine to coarse
crystals

Microscopic to very coarse

COMPOSITION

Halite

Gypsum

Dolomite

Calcite

Carbon

COMMENTS

Crystals from chemical precipitates and evaporites

Precipitates of biologic origin or cemented shell fragments

Compacted plant remains

ROCK NAME	MAP SYMBOL

Rock salt

Rock gypsum

Dolostone

Limestone

Bituminous coal

Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification

FOLIATED
MINERAL
ALIGNMENT
BAND-
ING
TEXTURE

GRAIN SIZE

Fine

Fine to
medium

Medium to coarse

GARNET
FELDSPAR
AMPHIBOLE
MICA
QUARTZ
COMPOSITION

TYPE OF METAMORPHISM

Regional

(Heat and pressure increases)

COMMENTS

Low-grade metamorphism of shale

Foliation surfaces shiny from microscopic mica crystals

Platy mica crystals visible from metamorphism of clay or feldspars

High-grade metamorphism; mineral types segregated into bands

ROCK NAME	MAP SYMBOL

Slate

Phyllite

Schist

Gneiss

Fine

Fine

Fine to coarse

Coarse

Carbon

Various minerals

Quartz

Calcite and/or dolomite

Various minerals

Regional

Contact (heat)

Regional or
contact

Metamorphism of bituminous coal

Various rocks changed by heat from nearby magma/lava

Metamorphism of quartz sandstone

Metamorphism of limestone or dolostone

Pebbles may be distorted or stretched

Anthracite coal

Hornfels

Quartzite

Marble

Metaconglomerate

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	7

PHANERO-
P R E C A M B R I A N
ARCHEAN
P R O T E R O Z O I C
A
T
E
D
M
I
L
CARBONIF-
EROUS
1.8
0.01
23.0
	55.8
GEOLOGIC HISTORY

Eon	Era	Period	Epoch	Life on Earth

NY Rock Record

Sediment

Million years ago 0

ZOIC
500

1000

L A T E

M
I
First sexually reproducing
D organisms L
E

CENOZOIC

MESOZOIC

QUATERNARY

NEOGENE

PALEOGENE

CRETACEOUS

JURASSIC

Million years ago	Bedrock HOLOCENE 0
PLEISTOCENE	Humans, mastodonts, mammoths

PLIOCENE      5.3      Large carnivorous mammals MIOCENE                 Abundant grazing mammals

OLIGOCENE 33.9     Earliest grasses
EOCENE	Many modern groups of mammals

65.5
PALEOCENE	Mass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and many land plants

LATE

Earliest flowering plants EARLY	Diverse bony fishes

146
LATE	Earliest birds

MIDDLE	Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids

EARLY

200

E A
2000                            R Oceanic oxygen begins to enter
Y	the atmosphere	PALEOZOIC

TRIASSIC

PERMIAN

LATE	Earliest mammals

Earliest dinosaurs MIDDLE

251
EARLY	Mass extinction of many land and marine LATE                        organisms (including trilobites)

MIDDLE	Mammal-like reptiles

EARLY	Abundant reptiles

3000

4000

4600

L	Oceanic oxygen produced by cyanobacteria combines with iron, forming iron oxide layers
D	on ocean floor D
L
 E  Earliest stromatolites Oldest microfossils

E

A Evidence of biological R carbon

L

Y
Oldest known rocks

Estimated time of origin of Earth and solar system

PENNSYLVANIAN

MISSISSIPPIAN

DEVONIAN

SILURIAN

ORDOVICIAN

CAMBRIAN

LATE       299

EARLY     318 LATE

MIDDLE

EARLY
359

LATE

MIDDLE

EARLY

416 LATE

EARLY
444

LATE

MIDDLE

EARLY
488 LATE

MIDDLE

EARLY

542

580

Extensive coal-forming forests

Abundant amphibians

Large and numerous scale trees and seed ferns (vascular plants); earliest reptiles

Earliest amphibians and plant seeds Extinction of many marine organisms

Earth’s first forests

Earliest ammonoids and sharks Abundant fish

Earliest insects

Earliest land plants and animals

Abundant eurypterids

Invertebrates dominant Earth’s first coral reefs

Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft-bodied organisms) Earliest fishes
Extinction of many primitive marine organisms Earliest trilobites
Great diversity of life-forms with shelly parts

Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft-bodied marine organisms)

(Index fossils not drawn to scale)	1300	Abundant stromatolites

A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	L	M	N

Cryptolithus	Valcouroceras	Centroceras	Eucalyptocrinus	Tetragraptus	Coelophysis	Stylonurus Elliptocephala                  Phacops	Hexameroceras	Manticoceras	Ctenocrinus                   Dicellograptus                     Eurypterus

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	8

PLACODERM FISH
OF NEW YORK STATE

Time Distribution of Fossils (including important fossils of New York)
The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of
existence of a specific index fossil (e.g. Fossil A lived at the end of the Early Cambrian).

Important Geologic Events in New York

Inferred Positions of Earth’s Landmasses

O	S	Advance and retreat of last continental ice

BIRDS
NAUTILOIDS
DINOSAURS
MAMMALS
Sands and clays underlying Long Island and	59 million years ago Staten Island deposited on margin of Atlantic
Ocean

Dome-like uplift of Adirondack region begins

L

Initial opening of Atlantic Ocean	119 million years ago North America and Africa separate

Intrusion of Palisades sill

Pangaea begins to break up

AMMONOIDS
CRINOIDS
VASCULAR PLANTS
CORALS
BRACHIOPODS
GASTROPODS
232 million years ago

TRILOBITES
GRAPTOLITES
EURYPTERIDS
Alleghenian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Africa along transform margin, forming Pangaea

C	F	G	N	Q	R

I

H	M	P E

K B	D

J

A

X	Z V

U	Y

T	W

Catskill delta forms

Erosion of Acadian Mountains

Acadian orogeny caused by collision of North America and Avalon and closing of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean

Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins

Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston delta forms
Taconian orogeny caused by closing of western part of Iapetus Ocean and collision between North America and volcanic island arc

Widespread deposition over most of New York along edge of Iapetus Ocean

359 million years ago

458 million years ago

Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean

Erosion of Grenville Mountains

Grenville orogeny: metamorphism of bedrock now exposed in the Adirondacks and Hudson Highlands

O	P	Q	R	S	T	U	V	W	X	Y	Z

Mastodont	Cooksonia	Naples Tree

Beluga Whale	Aneurophyton	Bothriolepis

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition

Condor	Cystiphyllum	Maclurites	Eospirifer

Lichenaria	Pleurodictyum	Platyceras	Mucrospirifer

ADU (2011) 9

Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	10

TRAVEL TIME (min)
Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time

24

23

22

21

20

19

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0
0	1	2	3	4	5	6

S

P

7	8	9	10

EPICENTER DISTANCE (´ 103 km)

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	11

Dewpoint (°C)

Dry-Bulb Tempera-ture (°C)
		
	Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)

	0
	1
	2
	3
	4
	5
	6
	7
	8
	9
	10
	11
	12
	13
	14
	15
	
–20
	–20
	–33
															
–18
	–18
	–28
															
–16
	–16
	–24
															
–14
	–14
	–21
	–36
														
–12
	–12
	–18
	–28
														
–10
	–10
	–14
	–22
														
–8
	–8
	–12
	–18
	–29
													
–6
	–6
	–10
	–14
	–22
													
–4
	–4
	–7
	–12
	–17
	–29
												
–2
	–2
	–5
	–8
	–13
	–20
												
0
	0
	–3
	–6
	–9
	–15
	–24
											
2
	2
	–1
	–3
	–6
	–11
	–17
											
4
	4
	1
	–1
	–4
	–7
	–11
	–19
										
6
	6
	4
	1
	–1
	–4
	–7
	–13
	–21
									
8
	8
	6
	3
	1
	–2
	–5
	–9
	–14
									
10
	10
	8
	6
	4
	1
	–2
	–5
	–9
	–14
	–28
							
12
	12
	10
	8
	6
	4
	1
	–2
	–5
	–9
	–16
							
14
	14
	12
	11
	9
	6
	4
	1
	–2
	–5
	–10
	–17
						
16
	16
	14
	13
	11
	9
	7
	4
	1
	–1
	–6
	–10
	–17
					
18
	18
	16
	15
	13
	11
	9
	7
	4
	2
	–2
	–5
	–10
	–19
				
20
	20
	19
	17
	15
	14
	12
	10
	7
	4
	2
	–2
	–5
	–10
	–19
			
22
	22
	21
	19
	17
	16
	14
	12
	10
	8
	5
	3
	–1
	–5
	–10
	–19
		
24
	24
	23
	21
	20
	18
	16
	14
	12
	10
	8
	6
	2
	–1
	–5
	–10
	–18
	
26
	26
	25
	23
	22
	20
	18
	17
	15
	13
	11
	9
	6
	3
	0
	–4
	–9
	
28
	28
	27
	25
	24
	22
	21
	19
	17
	16
	14
	11
	9
	7
	4
	1
	–3
	
30
	30
	29
	27
	26
	24
	23
	21
	19
	18
	16
	14
	12
	10
	8
	5
	1

Relative Humidity (%)

Dry-Bulb Tempera-ture (°C)
		
	Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)

	0
	1
	2
	3
	4
	5
	6
	7
	8
	9
	10
	11
	12
	13
	14
	15
	
–20
	100
	28
															
–18
	100
	40
															
–16
	100
	48
															
–14
	100
	55
	11
														
–12
	100
	61
	23
														
–10
	100
	66
	33
														
–8
	100
	71
	41
	13
													
–6
	100
	73
	48
	20
													
–4
	100
	77
	54
	32
	11
												
–2
	100
	79
	58
	37
	20
	1
											
0
	100
	81
	63
	45
	28
	11
											
2
	100
	83
	67
	51
	36
	20
	6
										
4
	100
	85
	70
	56
	42
	27
	14
										
6
	100
	86
	72
	59
	46
	35
	22
	10
									
8
	100
	87
	74
	62
	51
	39
	28
	17
	6
								
10
	100
	88
	76
	65
	54
	43
	33
	24
	13
	4
							
12
	100
	88
	78
	67
	57
	48
	38
	28
	19
	10
	2
						
14
	100
	89
	79
	69
	60
	50
	41
	33
	25
	16
	8
	1
					
16
	100
	90
	80
	71
	62
	54
	45
	37
	29
	21
	14
	7
	1
				
18
	100
	91
	81
	72
	64
	56
	48
	40
	33
	26
	19
	12
	6
				
20
	100
	91
	82
	74
	66
	58
	51
	44
	36
	30
	23
	17
	11
	5
			
22
	100
	92
	83
	75
	68
	60
	53
	46
	40
	33
	27
	21
	15
	10
	4
		
24
	100
	92
	84
	76
	69
	62
	55
	49
	42
	36
	30
	25
	20
	14
	9
	4
	
26
	100
	92
	85
	77
	70
	64
	57
	51
	45
	39
	34
	28
	23
	18
	13
	9
	
28
	100
	93
	86
	78
	71
	65
	59
	53
	47
	42
	36
	31
	26
	21
	17
	12
	
30
	100
	93
	86
	79
	72
	66
	61
	55
	49
	44
	39
	34
	29
	25
	20
	16

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	12

Temperature	Pressure

220

								

							

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								
							
60

40

20

0

–20

–40

–60

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

				

					380

							

							
						370

360

350

340

330

320

310

300

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								
								
						290

280

								

								

								
								
						270

260

250

240

230

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

								

Station Model

28	196
2	+19/ 27              .25
	Station Model Explanation

					

1040.0

1036.0

1032.0

1028.0

1024.0

1020.0

1016.0

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				
1012.0

1008.0

1004.0

1000.0

996.0

992.0

988.0

984.0

980.0

976.0

972.0

968.0

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

				

			

110	30.70 Water boils	100	30.60
90	30.50

80	30.40

70	30.30

60	30.20

50	30.10

40	30.00

30	One atmosphere	29.90

Room temperature	20	29.80

10	29.70 Water freezes	0	29.60
–10
29.50

–20
29.40 –30
29.30 –40

29.20 –50	220	29.10
Key to Weather Map Symbols
29.00

28.90

28.80

1
28.70

28.60

28.50

Present Weather

Drizzle	Rain	Smog	Hail	Thunder-	Rain storms     showers

Snow	Sleet	Freezing	Fog	Haze	Snow rain                                     showers
	Air Masses

cA continental arctic cP continental polar cT continental tropical mT maritime tropical mP maritime polar
	Fronts

Cold

Warm

Stationary

Occluded
	Hurricane

Tornado

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	13

Selected Properties of Earth’s Atmosphere

Planetary Wind and Moisture Belts in the Troposphere

The drawing on the right shows the locations of the belts near the time of an equinox. The locations shift somewhat with the changing latitude of the Sun’s vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere, the belts shift northward in the summer and southward in the winter.

(Not drawn to scale)

Electromagnetic Spectrum

	
	X rays

	
	Microwaves

	
	Gamma rays

			
	Ultraviolet
				Infrared

			

	
	Radio waves

Decreasing wavelength		Increasing wavelength Visible light

Violet
	Blue
	Green
	Yellow
	Orange
	Red

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition

(Not drawn to scale)

14

1,000,000

100,000

Characteristics of Stars (Name in italics refers to star represented by a .)

(Stages indicate the general sequence of star development.)

Massive Stars

(Rate at which a star emits energy relative to the Sun)
el

Ri a
											
				Deneb

SUPERGIA (Intermediate
	
Betelgeuse

Spic
					NTS stage)
		
			g

Polaris

GIANTS (Intermediate stage)

Aldebaran

				
Sirius

Al

ph
		Pollux

Centauri

									

a

												

											

40 E

rid

ani B
	Sun

									

WHITE DWA (Late stage)
	
RFS

Procyon B
	Barnard’s Star

Proxima Centauri

											

10,000

1,000

Luminosity
100

10

1

0.1

0.01

0.001

0.0001

30,000	20,000

Small Stars

10,000 8,000	6,000	4,000	3,000	2,000

Surface Temperature (K)

Blue	Blue White	 White	Yellow	Orange	Red Color

Solar System Data

Celestial Object
	Mean Distance from Sun (million km)
	Period of Revolution (d=days) (y=years)
	Period of Rotation at Equator
	Eccentricity of Orbit
	Equatorial Diameter (km)
	Mass (Earth = 1)
	Density (g/cm3)
	
SUN
	—
	—
	27 d
	—
	1,392,000
	333,000.00
	1.4
	
MERCURY
	57.9
	88 d
	59 d
	0.206
	4,879
	0.06
	5.4
	
VENUS
	108.2
	224.7 d
	243 d
	0.007
	12,104
	0.82
	5.2
	
EARTH
	149.6
	365.26 d
	23 h 56 min 4 s
	0.017
	12,756
	1.00
	5.5
	
MARS
	227.9
	687 d
	24 h 37 min 23 s
	0.093
	6,794
	0.11
	3.9
	
JUPITER
	778.4
	11.9 y
	9 h 50 min 30 s
	0.048
	142,984
	317.83
	1.3
	
SATURN
	1,426.7
	29.5 y
	10 h 14 min
	0.054
	120,536
	95.16
	0.7
	
URANUS
	2,871.0
	84.0 y
	17 h 14 min
	0.047
	51,118
	14.54
	1.3
	
NEPTUNE
	4,498.3
	164.8 y
	16 h
	0.009
	49,528
	17.15
	1.8
	
EARTH’S MOON
	149.6 (0.386 from Earth)
	
27.3 d
	
27.3 d
	
0.055
	
3,476
	
0.01
	
3.3

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	15

Nonmetallic luster
Metallic luster
Either
FRACTURE
CLEAVAGE
Properties of Common Minerals

HARD-LUSTER NESS

1–2	

2.5	

COMMON COLORS

silver to gray

metallic silver

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS

black streak, greasy feel

gray-black streak, cubic cleavage, density = 7.6 g/cm3

USE(S)

pencil lead, lubricants

ore of lead, batteries

COMPOSITION*

C

PbS

MINERAL NAME

Graphite

Galena

5.5–6.5

6.5

5.5 – 6.5 or 1

1	

2

2	

2–2.5	

2.5	

2.5–3	

black to silver

brassy yellow

metallic silver or earthy red

white to green

yellow to amber

white to pink or gray

colorless to yellow

colorless to white

black to dark brown

black streak, magnetic

green-black streak, (fool’s gold)

red-brown streak

greasy feel

white-yellow streak

easily scratched by fingernail

flexible in thin sheets

cubic cleavage, salty taste

flexible in thin sheets

ore of iron,
	steel

ore of sulfur

ore of iron, jewelry

ceramics, paper

sulfuric acid

plaster of paris, drywall

paint, roofing

food additive, melts ice

construction materials

Fe3O4

FeS2

Fe2O3

Mg3Si4O10(OH)2

S

CaSO4•2H2O

KAl3Si3O10(OH)2

NaCl

K(Mg,Fe)3 AlSi3O10(OH)2

Magnetite

Pyrite

Hematite

Talc

Sulfur

Selenite gypsum

Muscovite mica

Halite

Biotite mica

3	

3.5	

4	

5–6	

5.5	

6	

6	

6.5	

7	

6.5–7.5	

colorless or variable

colorless or variable

colorless or variable

black to dark green

black to dark green

white to pink

white to gray

green to gray or brown

colorless or variable

dark red to green

bubbles with acid, rhombohedral cleavage

bubbles with acid when powdered

cleaves in 4 directions

cleaves in
2 directions at 90°

cleaves at 56° and 124°

cleaves in
2 directions at 90°

cleaves in 2 directions, striations visible

commonly light green and granular

glassy luster, may form hexagonal crystals

often seen as red glassy grains in NYS metamorphic rocks

cement, lime

building stones

hydrofluoric acid

mineral collections, jewelry

mineral collections, jewelry

ceramics, glass

ceramics, glass

furnace bricks, jewelry

glass, jewelry, electronics

jewelry (NYS gem), abrasives

CaCO3

CaMg(CO3)2

CaF2

(Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al) (Si,Al)2O6

CaNa(Mg,Fe)4 (Al,Fe,Ti)3 Si6O22(O,OH)2

KAlSi3O8

(Na,Ca)AlSi3O8

(Fe,Mg)2SiO4

SiO2

Fe3Al2Si3O12

Calcite

Dolomite

Fluorite

Pyroxene (commonly augite)

Amphibole (commonly hornblende)

Potassium feldspar (commonly orthoclase)

Plagioclase feldspar

Olivine

Quartz

Garnet

*Chemical symbols:	Al = aluminum C = carbon
Ca = calcium

Cl = chlorine F = fluorine
Fe = iron

H = hydrogen K = potassium
Mg = magnesium

Na = sodium O = oxygen
Pb = lead

S = sulfur Si = silicon
Ti = titanium

= dominant form of breakage

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition	16