IBDesignTechnology

CORETopics1-6

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Topic1 1.1Anthropometrics 1.2PsychologicalFactors 1.3PhysiologicalFactors

Topic2 2.1Resourceandreserves 2.2Wastemitigationstrategies
2.3EnergyUtilisation,StorageandDistribution Wastemitigationstrategies 2.4CleanTechnologies
2.5GreenDesign 2.6EcoDesign

Topic3 3.1Conceptualmodelling 3.2Graphicalmodelling 3.3Physicalmodelling
3.4Computer-aideddesign(CAD) 3.5Rapidprototyping

Topic4 4.1Propertiesofmaterials 4.2aMetalsandmetallicalloys 4.2bTimber
4.2cGlass 4.2dPlastics 4.2eTextiles 4.2fComposites
4.3ScalesofProduction 4.4Manufacturingprocesses 4.5Productionsystems 4.6Robotsinautomatedproduction
	
Topic5 5.1Invention 5.2Innovation
5.3Strategiesforinnovation 5.4Strategiesforinnovation 5.5Productlifecycle 5.6Rogers’characteristicsofinnovationand consumers 5.7Innovation,designandmarketing specifications

Topic6 6.1Characteristicsofclassicdesign 6.2Classicdesign,functionandform

Updated11thMay2016-JohnZobrist

IB Design Technology CORE T1-6

Topic1 HumanFactorsandErgonomics

1.1Anthropometrics

Design is human centred and, therefore, designers need to ensure that the products they design are the right size fortheuser and therefore comfortable to use. Designers have access to data and drawings,whichstatemeasurementsofhumanbeingsof allagesandsizes.Designersneedtoconsiderhowuserswillinteractwiththeproductorservice.Useandmisuseisanimportant consideration. Anthropometric data sets can vary significantly between populations. Particularly in the fashion industry, the varianceinthesedatasetsimpactsthesizerangeofclothesforparticularmarkets.

Definetheterm‘HumanFactors’
	
The term Human Factors is used for the combination of ergonomics and anthropometrics

WhataretheaimsofHuman Factors?
	
HumanFactorsaimsto:
●	 Reduce stress and fatigue on people, as they will be able to do things faster, moreeasily,moresafelyandmakefewermistakes(reduceerrors)
●	Increasesafety
●	Increaseeaseofuse
●	Enhanceoperationalcomfort
●	Improvesystemperformance,reliabilityandmaintenance

WhatisErgonomics?
	
The application of scientific information concerning the relationship of human beingsto thedesignofobjects,systemsandenvironments.

Whatdowemeanbytheterm physicalergonomics?Givean example.
	
Physical ergonomics most often deals with the work related subjects of: posture; worksite development operating layout; material handling; repetitive stress and movement; repetitive stress injuries and musculoskeletal disorders; and occupational safety and health. The aspect of ergonomics that deals with body measurements, particularlythoseofsize,strengthandphysicalcapacity.

Whatdowemeanbytheterm cognitiveergonomics?Givean example.
	
Cognitive ergonomics is concernedwithmentalprocesses,suchasperception,memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elementsofasystem.

Whatdowemeanbytheterm organisationalergonomics?Give anexample.
	
Organizational ergonomics subjects include communication, work design, shift (work hours) management, crew resource management, teamwork, virtual organizations, telework,andqualitymanagement.

WhatisAnthropometricdata?
	
AnthropometricDataissub-classifiedasStaticDataandDynamicData.

WhatisStructural Anthropometricdata?
	
Static Data (also known as Structural data) refers to measurements taken while while thesubjectisinafixedorstandardposition,e.g.height,armlength.
Static data is much easier to gather, as people are asked to remain still while measurementsaretaken.

Whatisfunctional Anthropometricdata?
	
Dynamic Data (also known as Functional data) refers to measurements taken during physical activities, e.g. crawling height, overhead reach and a range of upper body movements.
Dynamic data involves people carrying out tasks. People carry out tasks in many differentways.Whilestaticdataismorereliable,dynamicdataisoftenmoreuseful.

Whattoolscanbeusedtocollect AnthropometricData?
	
SlidingCallipers,ClothTape,Sittingheightmeters,Stadiometer

Percentilesandpercentileranges
	
Percentiles are shown in anthropometry tables and they tell you whether the measurement given in the tables relates to the 'average' person, or someone who is aboveorbelowaverageinacertaindimension.

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Thereisagreatdealofanthropometricdataavailable.Youareexpectedtobeableto: -interpretpercentiletablesinordertocalculatedimensionsrelatedtoaproductand
consider how products can be adaptable for different markets or adjustable tocaterfor most
-consider the 5th, 50th and 95th percentiles in particular, andpercentilerangessuchas 2.5thto97.5thand5thto95th
-interpret percentile tables based on different national and international populations, genderandage.

Whatdowemeanwhenwe discussclearanceinHuman Factors?
	
Clearance can be seen as the minimum distance required to, enabletheusergroupinto or through an area. This is especially important when designing emergency exits and safetyhatches

Whatdowemeanwhenwe discussreachinHumanFactors?
	
Reach is also known as the workspace envelope. A 'workspace envelope' is a 3-dimensional space within which youcarryoutphysicalworkactivitieswhenyouareat a fixed location. Workspace envelopes should be designed for the 5th percentile of the user population, which means that 95% of users will be able to reach everything placed withintheenvelope.

Whydoesadesignerneedto consideradjustabilitywhen designingseating?
	
Certain products tend to be available in different sizes or with adjustability built in as there really is no ‘one size fits all’. E.g. Ironing tables can beadjustedtoallowforpeople of a different height to use comfortably. This has an effect on the design ofthelegs,as thisishowtheboardisadjustedinheight.

Explainwhatismeantbythe rangeofsizesversus adjustability
	
Clothing comes in a range of sizes. For manufacturers to make clothing fit every individual variance would not be economically possible,thusittendstocomeinarange of sizes based on percentile ranges. Children’s car seats are adjustable to allow for a rangeofsizesandagrowingchild.

Whatisanergonomeandwhen aretheyused?Whatarethe advantagesanddisadvantages?
	
A 2D scaled physical anthropometric model based on a specificpercentilehumanforms are called ergonomes. The ergonomes have been scaled from data taken from specific percentile rangestoformastandardhumanform.Ergonomesareusedwithdrawingsof the same scale as the model to consider the relationship between the size of an object and people. They are used with 2D drawings, mainlyfororthographicdrawingsandalso modellingtoviewfieldofreach,fieldofvision,etc.

Whatisamanikin?Whatarethe advantagesanddisadvantages?
	
A manikin is an anatomical 3D model of thehumanbody.Ajointedmodelofthehuman body used by artists, especially to demonstrate the arrangement ofdrapery.Alsocalled lay figure. They are useful for assessing the relationship of body parts to spatial arrangements represented by a 3D model, for example, a chair to a desk. Full scale manikins are generally more expensive than ergonomes and they give a better representation of the overall ergonomics in the design context (such as crash test dummies).

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IB Design Technology CORE T1-6

1.2PsychologicalFactors

Human beings vary psychologically in complex ways. Anyattemptbydesignerstoclassifypeopleintogroupsmerelyresultsina statement of broad principles that may or may not be relevant to the individual. Design permeates every aspect of human experience and data pertaining to what cannot be seen such as touch, taste, and smell are often expressions ofopinionrather than checkable fact. Theanalysisofthehumaninformationprocessingsystemrequiresadesignertocriticallyanalysearangeof causesandeffectstoidentifywhereapotentialbreakdowncouldoccurandtheeffectitmayhave.

WhatisCognitivepsychology/ cognitiveergonomicsconcerned with?
	
Cognitive ergonomics isconcernedwithmentalprocesses,suchasperception,memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elementsofasystem.
●	mentalprocesses-suchasperception,memoryandreasoning
●	 motor response-astheyaffectinteractionsamonghumansandotherelements ofasystem.

Whatmethodsaretherefor collectingPsychologicalfactor data?
	
1. Observation
2. Surveys&Interviews 3. StandardizedTesting 4. CaseStudies

WhatisaNominalDataScale?
	
Nominal means ‘by name’. Used in classification or division of objects into discrete groups. Each of which is identified with a name. The scale does not provide any measurementwithinorbetweenthecategories

WhatisanOrdinalDataScale?
	
Deals with the order or position of items. Words, letters, symbols or numbersarranged inahierarchicalorder.Quantitativeassessmentcannotbemade

WhatisaIntervaldatascale?
	
Organisedintoevendivisionsorintervals.Theintervalsareofequalsize.Thereisnozero

WhatisaRatiodatascale?
	
The difference between a ratio scale and an interval scale is that the zero point on an interval scale is some arbitrarily agreed value, whereas on a ratio scale it is atruezero. For example, 0°C has been defined arbitrarily as the freezing temperature of water, whereas 0 grams is a true zero, that is, no mass. A ratio scale allows you to compare differencesbetweennumbers.

Whatareexamplesof Psychologicalfactors?
	
Smell: important in food, perfumes, candles, deodorants, chemicals. Unpleasant odors areaddedtochemicalstowarnpeople.

Light: the level of illumination should increase as the tasks becomes more precise; for example the illumination required for a surgeon is brighterthantheilluminationneeded foracorridor.
Lighting in workplaces, safety. For example effects of florescent lighting and rotating parts on machinery. Lightingeffectonambienceandmood,e.g.lightinginrestaurants– gentle,calming,stimulating.

Sound:canbeusedto:
●	Provideinformationsuchaswarningsignal(firealarmoralarm). ●	Soundforreassurancethattheproductisworkingex.Watches ●	Feedback,whistlingkettles,reversingtrucks
Sound can be positive in the environment such as playing music in an exhibition. Noise can also be negative in a workspace, that’s whyopenplanofficesusescreenstoreduce noise.

Taste: important in food, it must have a good taste to sell well. Responses to taste are alsoafactorofcultureandexperience.

Texture: shapes and textures improve products and make them easier to use, for examplebottletops,handlesfabricsandnon-slipfloors,smoothworktopsinkitchen.

Temperature: Clothing is an important part of a comfortable work environment butthe

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IB Design Technology CORE T1-6

Management

Physicalenvironment

Equipmentdesign

Thework/jobitself

Socialandpsychological environment

Theworker
	
Policies,safetyeducation,decisioncentralization

Noise,temperature,pollutants,triphazards,signage

Controls,visibility,hazards,warnings,safetyguards

Boredomandrepetitiveness,mentalandphysical workload,musculoskeletalimpactssuchasforce, pressureandrepetition)

Socialgroupnorms,morale

Personalability,alertness,age,fatigue

	
environment must be controlled regardless of the outside climate. How the user responds to different environmental factors, for example, how warm or cold work environments can affect the performance of an individual.Arangeofcomfortzoneswill exist based on body mass, manner of dress or even physiological changes that can be developedfromexposuretoaparticulartemperatureorenvironmentovertime.

Value: May be perceived as a function of cost, features, prestige, rarity etc. or a combinationofthesefactors.

WhatistheHumaninformation processingsystems?
	
Humaninformation-processingsystems,consideringinputs,processes(sensory,central andmotor)andoutputs.Asimplerepresentationofahumaninformation-processing systemisbelow.

Whatareexamplesof Environmentalfactors?
	
Environmental factors such as noise, lighting, temperature, humidity, vibration may affect:hearing,vision,generalcomfortandhealth.

Whatareexamplesofa breakdownwiththeHuman information processingsystems?
	
Some examples of how the flow process may break down are dependent on the following:
●	Age,skillslevel,disability,infirmityorfrailty
●	 Young children may not have the size, strength, fine motor control or skill to performthetasks.
●	Olderpeoplemaynothavethestrength
●	 People with disabilities, such as arthritis or Parkinson's disease, may also not havethefinemotorcontrolrequired.
●	 A physical condition which can include: ALS: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, MS: Multiple Sclerosis, Arthritis, Partial paralysis, Parkinson’s disease, Repetitive Straininjury,Blindness,Hearing,Reducedsenseoffeeling

Howcanyoumaximiseworkplace performance?
	
An important roleinmaximisingworkplaceperformanceandreducingthepossibilitiesof accidents.

WhatisAlertness?
	
Alertness is the key term and meansbeingawareofwhatishappeninginthevicinity,in order to understand how information, events, and one's own actions will impact goals andobjectives,bothimmediatelyandinthenearfuture.

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WhatisaHumanerror?
	
Human error come in several forms but two fundamental categories are slips and mistakes. Slips result from automatic behaviour, when subconscious actions that are intended to satisfy our goals get waylaid en route. Mistakes result from conscious deliberations.

Whatarepossiblewaysof optimizingenvironmentalfactors tomaximizeworkplace performance?
	
Lighting: best lighting isnaturallightingorlowfrequency/brightnessdependingontask. Inmedicalsurgeryitwouldbeopposite-brightandsharptooptimisethetask
Thermal comfort: Male and Female have different body temperature. Having the right temperatureair/humidityandflowofair/circulationtogetbestworkperformance. Workingspace:Space,workingenvelope,safe Noise:Protectionofexcessivenoise(above85decibels) Vibration:Machines,etc.createvibrationandsoundandcanbeannoying

Whataresomeperceptioneffects inproducts?
	
This principle maintains that the human mind considers objects in their entirety before the perception of their individual parts; suggesting the whole is seen rather than the sumofitsparts.

Notes:

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IB Design Technology CORE T1-6

1.3PhysiologicalFactors

Designers study physical characteristics to optimizetheuser’ssafety,health,comfortandperformance.Understandingcomplex biomechanics and designing products to enable full functionality ofbodypartscanreturnindependenceandpersonalandsocial wellbeingtoanindividual.

What is Physiological factors concernedwith?
	
Physiological factors have more to do with bodily tolerances (how much can the body withstand) such as comfort and fatigue. When users interact with products, they may putstressontheirbodies.

What is Physical ergonomics concernedwith?
	
Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomy, and some of the anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity. Physical ergonomic principles have been widely used in the design of bothconsumerandindustrialproducts.

What are some human values with	types	of	physiological factors?
	
It also considers whichactivitiescanbecarriedoutandhowhumanvalues(forexample, quality of life, improved safety, reduced fatigueandstress,increasedcomfortlevelsand jobsatisfaction)areenhanced.

WhatisFatigue?
	
When people get tired they react in different ways. Fatigue is the temporary diminishment ofperformance.Fatiguecanbephysicaland/ormental.Fatiguecaninform designdecisionsandcanaffectusers.

WhatisComfort?
	
Comfort: is a qualitative consideration and differs massively between different people. Comfortisaphysiologicalfactorsthatinformdesigndecisionsandcanaffectusers.

Howcandesigningergonomically enhancedworkenvironmentsand productshaveadvantagesforthe employerandemployee?
	
Healthy Workforce: Instead of workers adjusting to standard tools and equipment, ergonomics promotes product designing based on human body structure and requirements.Therefore,theseproductsdrasticallyreducethestrainworkersexperience due to repetitiveuseofmachines,computers,scanners,industrialapparatusandrelated instruments. Less strain equates to reduced instance of occupational illnesses and thereforehealthieremployees. EnhancedProductivity:Ahealthyworkforcetranslatestoenhancedproductivity.Easyto use equipment keeps the work momentum going on for longer durations. Workers experiencelessfatigueandarehappytousetoolsdesignedespeciallyforthem. Reduced Number of Sick Days Reported: People with reduced instance of work associated ailments implies they take fewer days off due to sickness and work more numberofdaysinayear.Thismeanslessernumberofworkdaysislost.
Savings: By using ergonomic workstations, employers save huge amounts of money otherwisespentincompensationclaims,treatmentsandlitigation.

What is biomechanics in human factorsconcernedwith?
	
Biomechanics in human factors includes the research and analysis of the mechanics (operationofourmuscles,joints,tendons,etc.)ofourhumanbody.
With biomechanics, measuring the amount of force put on the muscles and joints of people whenworkingindifferentpositionscanbetestedbydeterminingwhichpositions make use of an individual’s muscular strength. Biomechanics in human factor design dealswithfourkeycriteria:
●	Force
●	Repetition ●	Duration ●	Posture

What are some factors affecting muscle strength with human factors?
	
●	Gender ●	Age-
-Greatestaround20’s -5%lessin40’s
-20%lessin60’s
●	Pain,Physicaltrainingschedule,Immobilizationorbedbound

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RenewableResources	NonRenewableResources

1.)Areinexhaustible 2.)Arenotaffectedbyhumanactivities 3.)Releaselesscarbonemissions 4.)Moreexpensivetoimplement. eg.hydroelectric,geothermal,solar, wind,tidal
	
1.)Resourcesarepresentinfixedand limitedquantities. 2.)Areexhaustible. 3.)Releasemorecarbonemissions. 4.)Lessexpensivetoimplement.
eg.coal,timber,naturalgas,oil,nuclear
	
IB Design Technology CORE T1-6

Topic 2 Resourcemanagement&sustainableproduction

2.1Resourceandreserves

Resource management and sustainable production carefully consider three key issues consumption of raw materials, consumption of energy, and production of waste—in relation to managing resources and reserves effectively and making production more sustainable.Asnon-renewableresourcesrunout,designersneedtodevelopinnovativesolutionstomeetbasic human needs for energy, food and raw materials. The development of renewable andsustainableresourcesisoneofthemajor challengesofthe21stcenturyfordesigners.

Resources
	
Resourcesarethestockorsupplyofmaterialsthatareavailableinagivencontext.

Renewableresources
	
A natural source which can replenish with time they make take place as energy or commodities, some will require careful management i.e.plantationoftimber;othersare deemedinexhaustiblei.e.windandsolar.

Non-Renewable
	
A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a resource that does not renew (replenish) itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction, for example,coal,petroleum,naturalgas,fossilfuels,mineralsandores.

Comparisonofrenewableand non-renewableresources

Reserves
	
Anaturalresourcethathasbeenidentifiedintermsofquantityandquality.
Energy reserves are projected on the basis of geologic and engineeringdataandcannot be obtained at present due to economic or technical reasons; i.e. mining of oil sands is currentlyuneconomicalduetocurrentpricestructure.

Renewability
	
Renewability relates to a resource that can be replenished over timeorisinexhaustible, for example wood from trees, and fresh drinking water Conserving resources and technologiesthatimproveenergyefficiency.

Impactofdevelopmentmayhave ontheenvironment
	
The impact of multinational companies when obtaining resourcesindifferentcountries/ regions can be a significant issue for the local population and have major social, ethical andenvironmentalimplications.

Thedevelopmentofrenewable andsustainableresourcesisone ofthemajorchallengesofthe 21stcenturyfordesigners.
	
The economic and political importance of material and land resources and reserves considering set-up cost, efficiency ofconversion,sustainableandconstantsupply,social impact,environmentalimpactanddecommissioning

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2.2Wastemitigationstrategies

Waste mitigation strategies can reduce or eliminatethevolumeofmaterialdisposedtolandfill.Theabundanceofresourcesand raw materials in the industrial age led to the developmentofathrowawaysociety,andasresourcesrunout,themanyfacetsof sustainability become a more important focus for designers. The result of the throwaway societyislargeamountsofmaterials foundinlandfill,whichcanbeconsideredasanewsourcetomineresourcesfrom.

Wastemitigationstrategies
	
The abundance of resources and raw materials in the industrial age led to the development of a throwaway society, and as resources run out, the many facets of sustainabilitybecomeamoreimportantfocusfordesigners.Theresultofthethrowaway society is large amounts of materials found inlandfill,whichcanbeconsideredasanew sourcetomineresourcesfrom.
Waste mitigation strategies can reduce or eliminate materials directed to landfill. The prevention, monitoring and handling of waste, coming up with solutions to deal with pollutionandwaste

Re-use
	
Reuseofthesameproductinsamecontextoradifferentcontext ExamplesincludeWaterBottles,PlasticBags,GlassBottles,Toothbrush,Clothes

Repair
	
The reconstruction or renewal of any part of an existing structure or device. To mend/restore/servicefaultyequipment,thelife-cycleofmanyproducts isdesignedsothatthey/orpartsdeteriorateovertime.
Examples: Washing machine belt, Shoe soles, Lightbulb, Cars - bumpers, lights, Fix an innertubeonabicycle

Re-engineer
	
To redesign components or products to improve their characteristics or performance. (speed, energy consumption). Examples include F1 cars - where aerodynamics is changed(shape)orlighternewmaterialsused

Recycle
	
Recyclingreferstousingthematerialsfromobsoleteproducts(waste) tocreateotherproducts.ExamplesincludeGlass,Paper,Aluminium cans,Thermoplastics,Newspaper

Recondition
	
Rebuilding a product so that it is in an “as new” condition, and is generally used in the contextofcarenginesandtyres.Examplesincludecarengines,tyres,bearings,etc

Dematerialisation
	
Reducing the quantities of materials trying to “do more with less”. Looking at the constraints of the materials weuse,throughreductionandreuseofmaterials.Examples include the changes made to the new Mac Pro vs the old Mac Pro version. Dematerialization improves product efficiency by saving, reusing or recycling materials and products. It impacts on every stage of the product life cycle: in material extraction; eco-design; cleaner production; environmentally conscious consumption patterns; recyclingofwaste.Itmaymeansmaller,lighterproductsandpackaging;thereplacement of physical products by virtual products (email instead of paper, web pages instead of brochures);homeworking,andsoon.

Methodologiesforwaste reduction
	
Lookingintothecurrentmanagementofwaste(i.elandfill,incineration)andpollution(i.e. noise,airpollution).

●	 Developing new bio-fuels, self-decomposing materials, building products from recyclable materials, reconditioning products and building products with a “cradletocradle”life-cycle.
●	 Making consumersandmanufacturersawareofpollutantsandtheeffectonthe environment, passing acts/legislation to ban/reducethesepollutantsi.e.theEU “Take Back” program and the US “Clean Air Act”. Eco-labeling products for consumerawareness.
●	 Following ISO (International standards organisations) 14000 a network of nationalstandardsspanningtheglobe,addressingenvironmentalissues.

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Methodologiesfordesigningout waste
	
-The prevention, monitoring and handling of waste, coming up with solutions to deal withpollutionandwaste.
-Productrecoverystrategiesatend-of-life/disposal
-Energyfromwaste,reuseofpartsofproducts,recyclingfrompartsofproducts. -Circulareconomy-theuseofwasteasaresourcewithinaclosedloopsystem
-Environmentalists have a large influence on product marketability, designers and manufactures often work together to design products which are deemed as Green/Environmentallyfriendly.

Productrecoverystrategies Recycling
	
Recyclingreferstousingthematerialsfromobsoleteproductstocreateotherproducts.

Productrecoverystrategies Rawmaterialrecovery
	
The processes of separating the component parts of a product to recover thepartsand materials.

Productrecoverystrategies WEEERecovery
	
WEEE is a complex mixture of materials and components from electrical products that because of their hazardous content, and if not properly managed, can cause major environmentalandhealthproblems.

Productrecoverystrategies Energyrecovery
	
Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW)istheprocessofgeneratingenergy in the form ofelectricityand/orheatfromtheprimarytreatmentofwaste.WtEisaform of energy recovery. Most WtE processes produceelectricityand/orheatdirectlythrough combustion, or produce a combustible fuel commodity, such as methane, methanol, ethanolorsyntheticfuels.

Productrecoverystrategies Standardpartsattheendof productlife
	
Reduction of total material and energy throughput of a product or service, and the limitation of its environmental impact through: reduction of raw materials at the production stage; energy and material inputs at the user stage; waste at the disposal stage

LifeCycleAnalysis(LCA)
	
Life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis) is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life from cradle to grave (i.e., from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution,use,repairandmaintenance,anddisposalorrecycling).

Circulareconomy—theuseof wasteasaresourcewithina closedloopsystem
	
An economy model in which resources remain in useforaslongaspossible,fromwhich maximum value is extracted while in use, and the products and materialsarerecovered andregeneratedattheendoftheproductlifecycle.

Externaldriversand socialchange
	
●	Increasingsupplychainpressure ●	Publicopinion
●	Energycosts ●	Wastecharges
●	Take-backlegislation
●	Theobligationtoprovideenvironment-relatedinformation ●	Normsandstandards
●	Eco-labellingschemes ●	Subsidies
●	Environmentalcompetition
●	Environmentalrequirementsinconsumertests ●	Environmentalrequirementsfordesignawards ●	Increasingcooperationwithsuppliers

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2.3EnergyUtilisation,StorageandDistributionWastemitigation strategies Thereareseveralfactorstobeconsideredwithrespecttoenergyanddesign.Efficientenergyuseisanimportantconsideration fordesignersintoday’ssociety.Energyconservationandefficientenergyusearepivotalinourimpactontheenvironment.A designer’sgoalistoreducetheamountofenergyrequiredtoprovideproductsorservicesusingnewertechnologiesorcreative implementationofsystemstoreduceusage.Forexample,drivinglessisanexampleofenergyconservation,whiledrivingthe sameamountbutwithahighermileagecarisenergyefficient.

Energyutilization,storageand distribution
	
Efficient energy use is an important consideration for designers in today’s society. Energy conservation and efficient energy use are pivotal in our impact on the environment. A designer’s goal is to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products or services using newertechnologiesorcreativeimplementationofsystemsto reduce usage. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation, while drivingthesameamountbutwithahighermileagecarisenergyefficient.

Embodiedenergy
	
The embodied energyinaproductaccountsforalloftheenergyrequiredtoproduceit.It is a valuable concept for calculating the effectiveness of an energy-producing or energy-savingdevice.

Distributingenergy:nationaland internationalgridsystems
	
The way in which electricity is distributed along the grid and the energy loss involved from small source collection and delivery, to large scale and the effect on the environment.

Localcombinedheatandpower (CHP)
	
Combined heat and power (CHP) is anefficientandcleanapproachtogeneratingelectric power and useful thermal energy fromasinglefuelsource.CHPisusedeithertoreplace or supplement conventional separate heat and power (SHP). Instead of purchasing electricity from the localutilityandburningfuelinanon-sitefurnaceorboilertoproduce thermal energy, an industrial or commercial facility can use CHP to provide bothenergy servicesinoneenergy-efficientstep.AdvantagesofCHPinclude:
-Reducedenergycostsversusseparateheatandelectricalgenerationsystems -Reducedemissionsversusseparateheatandelectricalgenerationsystems
-Where the capture and use of waste heat is not viable, many industrial facilities may stillbenefitfinanciallyviadistributedgeneration(DG)

Systemsforindividualenergy generation
	
Systems for individual energy generation such as microgeneration includes the small-scale generation of heat and electric power by individuals, small businesses and communities to meet their own needs, as alternatives or supplements to traditional centralized grid-connected power. E.g. solar power, wind turbines or biogas rainwater harvesting,composttoiletsandgreywatertreatmentsamongothers.

Quantificationofcarbon emissions:Measuring
	
●	recordcarbonemissions
●	discoverhowmuchisbeingproduced ●	discoverwho/whereitisproduced
●	trackyourcarbonfootprint

Mitigationofcarbonemissions: Reducing
	
●	Humansinterventioninthereductionofcarbonemissions ●	Thesecontributetoglobalwarming
●	Resultinginmeltingpolarcaps,risingseas,desertification, ●	provide‘Sinks’thatcanreabsorbcarbonemissions
●	A‘Sink’areforests,vegetationorsoils.

Batteries,capacitorsand capacitiesconsideringrelative cost,efficiency,environmental impactandreliability.
	
An electric battery is a device consisting of two or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Batteries and other electronic components (capacitors, chips, etc) have had a great impact on the portability of electronic products and, as new technologies are developed, they can become more efficient and smaller. Batteries are made from important resources and chemicals, including lead, cadmium, zinc, lithium and mercury. It’s important to understand the effects of your decisions as batteries are categorised into High, Medium and Low throughtheuseofasustainablelens(charging,impactoneco-system,etc).

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Geographicalscale	Typesofenvironmentalproblem

Local
	
Noise,smell,airpollution,soilandwater pollution

Regional
	
Soilandwaterover-fertilizationand pollution,drought,wastedisposal,air pollution

Fluvial
	
Pollutionofrivers,regionalwatersand watersheds

Continental
	
Ozonelevels,acidification,wintersmog, heavymetals

Global
	
Climaticchange,sealevelrise,impacton theozonelayer
	
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2.4CleanTechnologies

Clean technology seeks to reduce waste/pollution from production processes through radical or incremental development of a production system. Clean technology is found in a broad range of industries, including water, energy, manufacturing, advanced materials and transportation. As our Earth’s resources are slowly depleted, demand for energy worldwide should be on every designer’s mind when generating products, systems and services. The convergence of environmental, technological, economic andsocialfactorswillproducemoreenergy-efficienttechnologiesthatwillbelessreliantonobsolete,pollutingtechnologies.

CleanTechnology
	
Products, services or processes that reduce waste and require the minimum amountof non-renewable resources. Clean technology is found in a broad range of industries, including water, energy, manufacturing, advanced materials and transportation. As our Earth's resources are slowly depleted, demand forenergyworldwideshouldbeonevery designer’s minds when generating products, systems and services. The convergence of environmental, technological, economic and social factors will produce more energy efficienttechnologiesthatwillbelessreliantonobsolete,pollutingtechnologies.

Driversforcleaningup manufacturing
	
Manufacturers may respond to current or impending legislation or pressure created by thelocalcommunityandmedia.Thereasonsforcleaningupmanufacturinginclude:
●	promotingpositiveimpacts
●	 ensuring neutral impact or minimizing negative impacts through conserving naturalresources
●	reducingpollutionanduseofenergy
●	reducingwasteofenergyandresources

Breakdownofenvironmental problemsproductscancauseand theirgeographicalscale

Legislation
	
The role and scale of legislation are dependent upon the type ofmanufacturingandthe varied perspectives in different countries. Consider how legislation provides an impetus to manufacturers to clean up manufacturing processes and also how manufacturers react to legislation. Manufacturers may respond to current or impending legislation or pressurecreatedbythelocalcommunityandmedia.

Governments, politicians and businesses have to consider the effects of manufacturing on the environment. In recent years raised awareness of environmental issues is increasing pressure on governments to introduce or comply with legislation regarding environmental issues. These requirements bind companies to legislation and if these requirementsarenotmetthenfinancialpenaltiescanbe imposed.

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Incrementalsolutions	Radicalsolutions

Products which are improved and developed over time leading to new versionsandgenerations.
	
Where a completely new product is devised by going back to the roots of a problem and thinking about asolutionin adifferentway.
	
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Internationaltargetsforreducing pollutionandwaste
	
Sometimes, agreements are made at an international or continental level to create targets for reducing pollution and waste. These agreements are usually discussed and agreed upon at international summits and meetings. Often conflictsanddisagreements arise between countries trying to decide caps or limits on pollution or waste making agreements or settlements difficulttoachieve.Somecountriesmaybemoreaffectedby such limits than others, and feel that their economy or the profits of companies will sufferasaresult.SomerecentagreementsincludeKyotoProtocol,MontrealProtocoland theCarbonTradingScheme.

End-of-pipetechnologies
	
An initial responsetoreducingtheemissionofpollutantsandcreationofwasteisadding clean-up technologies to the end of the manufacturing process. This is called an end-of-pipe approach.Technologythatisusedtoreducepollutantsandwasteattheend of a process. This can entail the treatment of water, air, noise, solid or toxic wastes. Some examples of this approach include: Carbon Capture, Filtration systems, CompostingandCatalyticConvertersonvehicles

Systemlevelsolutions
	
A System level solution embraces the idea of a solution to the problemofpollutionand waste as a whole and is concerned with the interrelationship rather than individual elements. It helps policymakers and energy plannersunderstandtheimpactsofexisting and proposed legislation, policy, and plans on renewable energy development and deploymentatthelocal,state,regional,andnationallevels.

Agreements are made at an international or continental level to create targets for reducing pollution and waste. These agreements areusuallydiscussedandagreedupon at international summits and meetings. Often conflicts and disagreements arise between countries trying to decide caps or limits on pollution or waste making agreements or settlements difficulttoachieve.Somecountriesmaybemoreaffectedby such limits than others, and feel that their economy or the profits of companies will sufferasaresult.

Notes:

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2.5GreenDesign

Green design integrates environmental considerations into the design of a product without compromising its integrity. The starting point for many green products is to improve an existing product by redesigning aspects of ittoaddressenvironmental objectives. The iterative development of these products can be incremental or radical depending on how effectively new technologies can address the environmental objectives. When newer technologies are developed, the product can re-enter the developmentphaseforfurtherimprovement.

GreenDesign
	
The product- role of designer: The starting point for many green products is toimprove an existing productbyredesigningaspectsofittoaddressenvironmentalobjectives.The iterative development of theseproductscanbeincrementalorradicaldependingonhow effectively new technologies can address the environmental objectives. When newer technologies are developed, the productcanre-enterthedevelopmentphaseforfurther improvement.

Greenlegislation
	
Laws and regulations that are based on conservation and sustainability principles, followedbydesignersandmanufacturerswhencreatinggreenproducts.
Green legislation often encourages incremental, rather thanradicalapproachestogreen design. Sustainable products provide social and economic benefits while protecting public health, welfare and the environment throughout their life cycle—from the extractionofrawmaterialstofinaldisposal.

Incremental innovation is sometimes referred to as continuous improvement, and the business attitude associatedwithitis‘inside-the-box’ thinking.Asimpleproductmaybe improved (in terms of better performance or lower costs) through the use of higher performance components or materials. A complex product that consists of integrated technical subsystems can be improved by partial changes to one level of asub-system. Incremental innovations do not involve major investments or risks. Userexperienceand feedbackisimportantandmaydominateasasourceforinnovationideas

Radical innovation involves the development of new key design elements such as change in a product component combined with a new architecture for linking components. The result is a distinctively new product, product-service, or product system that is markedly different from the company’s existing product line. Ahighlevel ofuncertaintyisassociatedwithradicalinnovationprojects,especiallyatearlystages.

Timescaletoimplementgreen design
	
Often, legislation requires governments and manufacturers to comply over manyyears. This can be beneficial to companies and manufacturers as they can adopt incremental approaches togreendesignthereforeminimisingthecost,howeversomeenvironmental concerns, for example carbon dioxide reduction and climate change require immediate action.

Legislation
	
Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or energyefficiency.

Incremental changes to a design and as such is relatively easy to implement, for example, legislation relating to the use ofcatalyticconvertersforcars.Thetimescalefor implementing green design is relatively short (typically 2–5 years) and therefore cost-effective.

ConsumerPressure
	
The public have become aware of environmental issues through media focus on issues such as the destructive effect of chlorofluorocarbons on the ozone layer; acid rain in Northern European forests and the nuclear accident at Chernobyl. Increased public awarenesshasputpressureoncorporationsandgovernments.

CFCs were the ideal refrigerants during their time. They were nonflammable, non corrosive, nontoxic, and odorless. Usedconsumerproductsduringthe70sand80s,such as refrigerators, cleansing products, and propellants. CFC’swerefoundtobedestructive totheOzonelayer.

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Driversforgreendesign (consumerpressureand legislation)
	
Drivers for green design include consumer pressure and legislation, among others. Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or energy efficiency. Unfortunately, many companies value short term profit and value for shareholders over the impact of their activities on the environment. Some companies lobby governments so that they can be exempt from legislation, or to try and persuade them to ‘water down’ legislation. Sometimesconsumerpressurecanbejustaseffective as legislation. Through social media, the bad behaviour of companies can be exposed quickly, reach a wider audience and consumers can decide as a large grouptoboycotta company. Social media has allowed the influence of consumers to grow exponentially. Thiscanhurtacompany'sprofitsgreatly,persuadingthemtocleanuptheiract.

Designobjectivesforgreen products
	
Design objectives for green products will often address three broad environmental categories.
●	Materials ●	Energy
●     Pollution/Waste Theseobjectivesinclude:
1. increasingefficiencyintheuseofmaterials,energyandotherresources; 2. minimizingdamageorpollutionfromthechosenmaterials
3. reducingtoaminimumanylong-termharmcausedbyuseoftheproduct
4. ensuring that the planned life of the product is most appropriate in environmentaltermsandthattheproductfunctionsefficientlyforitsfulllife
5. takingfullaccountoftheeffectsoftheenddisposaloftheproduct
6. ensuring that the packaging and instructions encourage efficient and environmentallyfriendlyuse
7. minimizingnuisancessuchasnoiseorsmell
8. analysingandminimizingpotentialsafetyhazards
9. minimizingthenumberofdifferentmaterialsusedinaproduct 10. labellingofmaterialssotheycanbeidentifiedforrecycling.

Whenevaluatingproductsustainability,studentsneedtoconsider: 1. rawmaterialsused
2. packaging
3. incorporationoftoxicchemicals 4. energyinproductionanduse
5. end-of-lifedisposalissues 6. productionmethods
7. atmosphericpollutants.

StrategiesfordesigningGreen Products
	
The environmental impact of the production, use and disposal of a product can be modified by the designer through careful consideration at the design stage. When designingGreenproductconsiderationmustbemadefor:
●	rawmaterialsused ●	packaging
●	incorporationoftoxicchemicals ●	energyinproductionanduse
●	end-of-lifedisposalissues ●	productionmethods
●	atmosphericpollutants.

Materials
	
Howmuchdamageisdonetotheenvironmentinextractingtherawmaterial? Howmuchenergyisneededtoprocessthismaterial? Howlongwillthismateriallast/willitdamageeasily? Canthismaterialberecycled?

Energy
	
HowcanIreducetheamountofenergyrequiredtomanufacture thisproduct? HowcanIreducetheamountofenergyrequiredtousethisproduct?

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Pollution/Waste
	
Whatislikelytohappentothisproductwhenitisobsolete? HowcanIreducethechancesofthisproductendingupinlandfillorsenttoincineration? HowcanIincreasethechancesofthisproductbeingrepaired,reusedorrecycled? HowcanIreducetheamountofpollutiongivenoffbythisproduct?

Thepreventionprinciple
	
The avoidance or minimization of hazards and waste. It aims to address the occupationalhealthandsafetyconcernsthrougheachstageoftheproductlifecycle.

A numberofriskassessmenttoolscanbeusedbycompaniestoassesstheiroperations for risk and introduce management systems to protect the health and safety of employeesandminimisewaste.

●	Knowledgebased
●	Actualriskofcausingharmcanbeassessed
●	Occurrenceofdamageisprobableifnomeasureistaken
●	 Regulation emission framework defines substantial criteria (eg. emissions thresholds)
●	Definitionofacceptableriskisprimarilysciencebased

Theprecautionaryprinciple
	
The anticipation of potential problems in relation to the environmental impact of the production, use and disposal of a product. The precautionary principle permits a lower level of proof of harm to be used in policy-making whenever the consequences of waitingforhigherlevelsofproofmaybeverycostlyand/orirreversible.

●	Uncertainty
●	Riskcannotbecalculatedandisonlyasuspectedriskofcausingharm ●	Occurrenceofdamageisuncertainandcannotbepredictedclearly
●	Regulationthroughproceduralrequirements ●	Socialacceptanceoftheriskisconsidered

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Internaldriversforeco-design	Externaldriversforeco-design

Manager'ssenseofresponsibility
	
Government

Theneedforincreasedproductquality
	
Marketdemand

Theneedforabetterproductand companyimage
	
Socialenvironment

Theneedtoreducecosts
	
Competitors

Theneedforinnovativepower
	
Tradeorganisations

Theneedtoincreasepersonnel motivation
	
Supplies
	
IB Design Technology CORE T1-6

2.6EcoDesign

Eco-design considers the design of a product throughout its life cycle (from cradle to grave) using lifecycle analysis. Efficient energy use is an important consideration for designers in today’s society. Energy conservation and efficient energy use are pivotal in our impact on the environment. A designer’s goal is to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products or services using newer technologies or creative implementation of systems to reduce usage. For example, driving less is an exampleofenergyconservation,whiledrivingthesameamountbutwithahighermileagecarisenergyefficient.

EcoDesign
	
Eco-design is a more comprehensive approach than green design because it attempts to focus on all three broad environmental categories—materials, energy and pollution/waste.Thismakeseco-designmorecomplexanddifficulttodo.

Impactofinternalandexternal driversforeco-designfroman economicperspective

Cradletograve
	
Cradle to grave design considers the environmental effects of a product all of the way frommanufacturetousetodisposal

CradletotheGate
	
Cradle to cradle design isakeyprincipleofthecirculareconomy.CradletoCradle®(C2C) is a holistic approach to design popularized by Professor MichaelBraungartandWilliam McDonough. Braungart and McDonough offer CradletoCradle®certificationtoproducts that measure up to the standards they set. According to their website: “The targetisto develop and design productsthataretrulysuitedtoabiologicalortechnicalmetabolism, thereby preventingtherecyclingofproductswhichwereneverdesignedtoberecycledin thefirstplace.”

CradletotheGate
	
Cradle to the Gate (Cradle-to-gate is an assessment of a partial product life cycle from resource extraction (cradle) to the factory gate (i.e., before it is transported to the consumer).

LifeCyclestages:
	
Make sure you are able to assess the environmental impact of a given product over its life cycle through LCA(LifeCycleAssessment)-Pre-production,Production,Distribution including packaging, Utilization and Disposal. The complexnatureofLCAmeansthatit is not possible for a lone designertoundertakeitandateamwithdifferentspecialismis required. LCA is complex, time-consumingandexpensive,sothemajorityofeco-designs are based on less detailed qualitativeassessmentsoflikelyimpactsofaproductoverits life cycle. The simplest example is the use ofachecklisttoguidethedesignteamduring aproduct’sdesigndevelopmentstages.

UNEPEcodesignManual
	
In 1996 the United nations released an Eco-design manual also known as Design for Sustainability (D4S). The major concerns outlined in the UNEP Ecodesign Manual were to:
●	increaserecyclability
●	reduceenergyrequirements

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●	maximiseuseofrenewableresources
●	reducecreationanduseoftoxicmaterials
●	reducematerialrequirementsofgoodsandservices
●	increaseproductdurabilityandreducedplannedobsolescence

Designfortheenvironment software
	
CAD Software thatallowsdesignerstoperformLifecycleanalysis(LCA)onaproductand assessitsenvironmentalimpact.

Productlifecyclestages:therole ofthedesigner,manufacturer anduser
	
Therolesandresponsibilitiesofthedesigner,manufactureranduserateachstageofthe product life cycle can be explored through LCA. LCA identifies conflicts that have to be resolved through prioritization. It is not widely used in practice because it is difficult, costly and time-consuming. It is targeted at particular product categories—products with high environmental impacts in the global marketplace, for example, washing machines and refrigerators. However, in the re-innovation of the design of a product or its manufacture,specificaspectsmaybechangedafterconsideringthedesignobjectives for green products, such as selecting less toxic materials or using more sustainable sources.Aproductmaybedistributeddifferentlyoritspackagingmayberedesigned.

Environmentalimpact assessmentmatrix
	
Environmental considerations include water, soil pollution and degradation, air contamination, noise, energy consumption, consumption of natural resources, pollutionandeffectonecosystems

Convergingtechnologies
	
The synergistic merging of nanotechnology, biotechnology, information and communication technologies and cognitive science. A typical example of converging technology is the smart phone in terms of the materials required tocreateit,itsenergy consumption,disassembly,recyclabilityandtheportabilityofthedevicesitincorporates.

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Advantage	Disadvantage

-Shares‘BigPicture’
-Makesiteasyfornon-designersand non-technicalpeopletounderstanda complexidea
-Communicationwithclientsandusers -Gaugepeople'sreactiontoconceptor idea
	
-Lacksdetail
-Canbemisinterpreted
-Scalemodelscanbemisleadingwhen theproductissmallerorlarger
-Materialsmaynotreflectthefinal choiceofmaterials-difficulttoemulate
	
IB Design Technology CORE T1-6

Topic3 Modelling

3.1Conceptualmodelling

A conceptual model originates in themindanditsprimarypurposeistooutlinetheprinciples,processesandbasicfunctionsofa design or system. Designers use conceptual modelling to assist their understanding by simulating the subject matter they represent. Designers should consider systems, services and products in relation to what they should do, how they should behave,whattheylooklikeandwhethertheywillbeunderstoodbytheusersinthemannerintended.

Whatistheroleofconceptual modellingindesign?
	
A conceptual model originates in the mind and its primary purpose is to outline the principles, processes and basic functions of a design or system. Conceptual models are used to help us know and understand ideas. Concept models are useful for communicatingnewideasthatareunfamiliartopeople.

Howdoconceptualmodelsvaryin relationtothecontext? Whataresomeoftheconceptual modellingtoolsandskillsneeded?
	
Conceptual models may vary in range from the more concrete , such as mental image that appears in mind, to theabstractmathematicalmodelsthatdonotappeardirectlyin mind as an image. Conceptual models also range from scope of the subject they are representing. For example, they can represent either a single model (Statue of Liberty), whole classes of things (f.e.electron)orevenavast domainsofsubjectmatter,suchas physical universe. Conceptual models are used to help us know and understand, design thinking,ideas,casualrelationships,principles,data,systems,algorithmsorprocesses.
●	GraphicalModelling ○	Sketches
○	Drawings
○	Flowcharts ●	PhysicalModelling
○     Card ○     Clay
○	Rapidprototype(3Dprinting) ○	Balsawood
○	Bluestyrofoam ●	VirtualModelling:
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) Surface or Solid modelling, FEA, Data modeling

Whatisservicedesign?
	
Service design is the activity of planning and organizing people, infrastructure, communication and material components of a service in ordertoimproveitsqualityand the interaction between service provider and customers. The purpose to design according to the needs of the customers → so the product is user-friendly, competitive andrelevant.

Howareconceptualmodelsused tocommunicatewithoneselfand others?
	
Concept models are used to communicate ideas that might be difficult to imagine otherwise. Designers use conceptual modelling to visualise and communicate ideas by simulatingwhattheywanttodesign.

Whataretheadvantagesand disadvantagesofusing conceptualmodelling?

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3.2Graphicalmodelling

Graphical models are used to communicate design ideas. Graphical models can take many forms, but their prime function is always the same—to simplify the data and present it in such a way thatunderstandingofwhatisbeingpresentedaidsfurther development or discussion. Designers utilize graphicalmodellingasatooltoexplorecreativesolutionsandrefineideasfromthe technicallyimpossibletothetechnicallypossible,wideningtheconstraintsofwhatisfeasible.

What
	
Whattheyareusedfor
	
Whattheylooklike

Whatisagraphical model?
	
Agraphicalmodelisa2Dand3Dgraphical models/visualizationofanidea,oftencreated onpaperorthroughsoftware.
	
Theyaredrawingsthatconveythedesignersidea.

Perspective drawings
	
Toshowwhataproductwilllooklikewhen finishedinamorelifelikeway.
	
Informaldrawingtechniqueonthe3Dviewofthe design. Thelinesofaperspectivedrawinghead towardsavanishingpoint.

Isometricdrawings
	
Usedtoaccuratelyshowwhataproductwill looklikewhenitisfinished
	
Youcanrecognisethesedrawingsbyanangleof theobjectinthedrawingbeing30degrees

Orthographic Projection
	
Awayofdrawingan3Dobjectfromdifferent directions.Usuallyafront,sideandplanview aredrawnsothatapersonlookingatthe drawingcanseealltheimportantsides. Orthographicdrawingsareusefulespecially whenadesignhasbeendevelopedtoastage wherebyitisalmostreadytomanufacture. Final,canbeputtomanufacture.Mustalways haveatleast3views.

Scaledrawings
	
Alldrawingtechniquesthatshowanobjectin proportiontoitsactualsize.Itisusedwhen somethingneedstobepresentedaccuratelyor eitherforplanningormanufacturing.

			

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Sketchingversus formaldrawing techniques
	
Sketching:Spontaneousandfreehand representationusedveryearlyinthedesign process.Usuallyfreehand Adv:Communicatetheideasveryquickly amongthecolleagues. Dis:can’ttaketheideatomanufacture.

Formaldrawings:Ruledoutandaccurate drawings.Thetechniquestendtobeusedin thedevelopmentphaseofadesignprocess. Formaldrawingsareusedtorepresentamore resolvedidea,somethingthatthedesignerhas settledonorwishestoinvestigatetheideain moredetail. Adv:Showsindetailsizesofconcept,Canbe usedtoconstruct,Accurate,Differentviewsof objectshownthatcouldn’tseefroma3D drawing Dis:Timeconsuming,Requireshighlevelof skill,Specialistdrawingequipmentneeded
	
Sketching:

Formaldrawings:

Partdrawings
	
Apartdrawingprovidestheinformationto assemblyaproductinasimilarwaythatan assemblydrawingdoeswithadditionalbenefit ofhavingalistofparts[LOP]orBillof Materials[BOM].Adrawingofindividualparts tohelpknowwhichpartisbrokenandhowto repairit.

Assemblydrawings

(Exploded isometric)
	
Anassemblydrawingshowshowpartsofa productfittogether.Theyareoftenusedto showhowtoassemblepartsofmodelkitsand flat-packfurniture.
Therearetwotypesofassemblydrawings.

Afittedassemblydrawingshowsthepartsput together,andcanbedrawnin2Dor3D.

Anexplodedassemblydrawingthatshowsthe partsseparated,butinthecorrectrelationship forfittingtogether.Explodedviewsareusually drawnin3D.

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Algorithm
	
Inmathematicsandcomputerscience,an algorithmisaself-containedstep-by-stepset ofoperationstobeperformed. Seenherewithaflowchart.

Notes:

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3.3Physicalmodelling

A physical model is a three-dimensional, tangible representation of a design or system. Designers use physical models to visualize information about the context that the model represents. It is very common for physical modelsoflargeobjectstobe scaled down and smaller objectsscaledupforeaseofvisualization.Theprimarygoalofphysicalmodellingistotestaspectsofa product against user requirements. Thorough testing at the design development stage ensures that an appropriate product is developed.

Term
	
Definition
	
Example/advantages&disadvantages

WhatisPhysical modelling?
	
Aphysicalmodelisa
three-dimensional,tangible representationofadesignorasystem. ‘AppearanceModel’

Advantages:
-Theyallowtheusertovisualizetheproductandidentifying anyproblemswiththeproducteasily.
-Theusercanunderstandhowtheproductwouldlookinareal environment.
Disadvantages:
-Itcanbeatimeconsumingprocesstocreatethephysical model.
-Itcan’tbemanipulatedthesamewayadigitalmodelcanbe.

Scale models
	
Ascalemodelisasmallerorlarger physicalcopyofanobject.Scale modelsallowvisualization,from examiningthemodel,ofinformation aboutwhatthemodelrepresents.A scaleisusuallyrepresentede.g.1:100

Agoodexampleofscalemodelsisseen inarchitecture,wherebyafull-size buildingismodelledatagreatly reducedscale.Thisenablesdesigners tovisualizethestructureofthe building,butalsotheexteriorand interioraestheticsandlines.

Advantages:
-Themodelcanbeoverviewedeasily,especiallyiftheoriginal designisexceptionallylarge.
-Asitisscaled,itgivesanideaofhowlargethemodelwillbe whenitisactuallyproduced/built.
Disadvantages:
-Canbetimeconsumingtocreateaperfectlyscalemodel.
-Apartfromprovidingtheuserwithvisualinformationabout theproduct,itishardtomanipulateittoshowhowitworks.

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Aesthetic models
	
Aestheticmodelsaredevelopedto lookandfeellikethefinalproduct.They areusedformanypurposesincluding ergonomictestingandevaluating visualappeal.Aestheticmodelslook likebutdonotworklikethefinal product.Aestheticmodelscanbe relativelysimple,consistingofsolid chunksoffoamfinishedandpaintedto lookliketherealthing,ortheycanbe moresophisticated,simulatingweight, balanceandmaterialproperties. Usually,aestheticmodelsare“for show”andarenotdesignedtobe handledexcessively.Theygive
non-designersagoodrepresentation ofthefeelandlookofanobject.For example,productionengineerscan takedatatoassessfeasibilityfor matchingmanufacturingsystems.

Advantages:
-Theycanbeusedinsteadofdigitalmodelstogivetheuseran ideaofhowtheproductwouldlooklikeinarealenvironment. -Theycanbeusedtogiveproductionengineersdatatoassess thefeasibilityofproducingtheproduct.
Disadvantages:
-Theyarenon-workingmodelsandtheyonlyprovideavisual modeloftheproduct.
-Theyarefairlyexpensivetoproduceasthesurfacefinishcan bedifficulttorecreate.

Mock-ups
	
Mock-upsareusedtotestideas.They arescaleorfull-sizerepresentationof aproductusedtogainfeedbackfrom users.Amock-upcanbeconsidereda prototypeifitincludessome functionality.

Canhave'work-like'mockupand 'look-like'mockup.
	
Advantages:
-Canbeusedtogetfeedbackfrom theuser.
-Theyaremodelsmadetoa1:1scale andofferafullsizerepresentationof theproduct.
Disadvantages:
-Doesnotofferasmuchfunctionality asaprototype.
-Canbedifficultandtimeconsuming tocreate.

Functional Prototypes
	
Afunctionalprototypeisasampleor modelbuilttotestaconceptorprocess ortoactasanobjecttobereplicatedor learnedfrom.Aprototypeisusedto testandvalidateideasandcanbeused throughoutdesigndevelopment. Prototypingcanbeusedtoprovide specificationsforareal,working productratherthanatheoreticalone. Prototypesaredevelopedtoworkfrom twoperspectives:thepointofviewof thedevelopmentteam,whichcanlearn bycreatingtheproduct,andthepoint ofviewoftheuser,fromwhomthe developmentteamcanlearnthrough userinteractionandfeedback.A prototypecanbedevelopedatdifferent fidelitieswithinarangeofuserand environmentcontexts.

Advantages:
-Isasemitofullyfunctioningmodelofaproductandthusit canbeusedtotestthefunctionsofthefinalproductout.
-Itcanprovidespecificationsforthepartsinvolvedinareal productandhowtheywouldfunctiontogether. Disadvantages:
-Canbeslightlyexpensivetomakeastheprototypeneedsto beabletofunction.
-Doesnottakeaestheticsintoaccountasitprimarilyteststhe functionoftheproduct.

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Whatistherange ofFidelity
	
Fidelityisameasureoftherealismofa modelorsimulation. Therangeoffidelityis: •lowfidelity—conceptual representationanalogoustotheidea •mediumfidelity—representationof aspectsoftheidea •highfidelity—mock-upoftheidea, ascloseaspossibletothefinalproduct
	
Therangeofcontextsis: •restricted—inacontrolledenvironment •general—anyuser,anyenvironment •partial—finaluser orenvironment •total—finaluser andenvironment

Acombinationoffidelityandcontextprovidesvalidationofan ideaand/orfurtherinsightfordevelopment.

Instrumented models
	
Instrumentedphysicalmodelsare equippedwiththeabilitytotake measurementstoprovideaccurate quantitativefeedbackforanalysis. Theycanbeusedeffectivelyto investigatemanyphenomenasuchas fluidflowsinhydraulicsystemsor withinwindtunnels,stresswithin structuresanduserinteractionwitha product.Forexample,aninstrumented modelofakeyboardcanrecordthe actionsoftheuserandprovidedataon howoftenkeysareusedandthe numberoferrorsausermakes(thatis, thenumberoftimesthebackspaceor deletekeyisused).Thesemodelscan bescaledintermsofbothgeometry andimportantforces.

Advantages:
-Canbeusedtotakeaccuratemeasurementsrelatedtothe performanceoftheproduct,andcanbeusedtoimprovethe productfurther.
-Canbeusedtorecordthedynamicbehaviourofanobject,in otherwords,datacanbetakenonhowtheproductfunctions inacontrolledenvironment.
Disadvantages:
-Cantaketimeandbeveryexpensivetosetup.

Notes:

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3.4Computer-aideddesign(CAD)

A computer-aided design is the generation, creation, development and analysisofadesignorsystemusingcomputersoftware. As technologies improve and the software becomes more powerful, so do the opportunities for designers to create new and exciting products, services and systems. Greater freedom in customization and personalization of products has a significant impact on the end user. Theabilitytovirtuallyprototype,visualizeandsharedesignsenhancesthewholedesigncyclefromdata analysisthroughtofinaldesigns.

Term
	
Definition
	
Example/advantages&disadvantages

WhatisCADandwhatisit usedfor
	
Computer-aideddesign.CADisused forconceptualdesignandlayoutof productandcanultimatelyeliminate thehighcostsoftestingand manufacturing.CADisusedinfashion, construction,automative,architecture andforplanningelectricalor mechanicallayout.
	
-Acomputer-aideddesignisthegeneration,creation, developmentandanalysisofadesignorsystemusing computersoftware.TheuseofCADtosimulatethe conditionsinwhichaproductwillbeusedallowsthe designertogainvaluabledataatlowcost.

Surfacemodelling
	
Surfacemodelsarephoto-realistic imagesofaproduct,offeringsome machiningdatabutnodataaboutthe interioroftheproduct.

-photo-realisticimagesofaproduct,offeringsome machiningdata
-Nodataabouttheinterioroftheproduct.

Solidmodelling
	
Solidmodelsareclearrepresentations ofthefinalproduct.Theyprovidea completesetofdatafortheproductto berealizedincludinginternal dimensionsandvolume.

Solidmodelsareclearrepresentationsofthefinal product.Theyprovideacompletesetofdataforthe producttoberealizedincludinginternaldimensions andvolume.

Datamodelling alsoknownas Mathematicalmodelling/ Statisticalmodelling
	
Adatamodelexplicitlydeterminesthe structure of data or structured data including statistical modelling. Typical data models include databases and informationsystems

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Virtualprototyping
	
Virtualprototypinginvolvestheuseof surfaceandsolidmodellingtodevelop photo-realisticinteractivemodels. Thesecanbeconsidereddigital
mock-ups.

		JaguarandLandRovermovingtovirtual3Dvehicle prototyping

Bottom-upmodelling
	
Whendesigningusinga“bottom-up” strategy,thedesignercreatespart geometryindependentofthe assemblyoranyothercomponent. Althoughsomedesigncriteriaare oftenestablishedbeforemodelling thepart,thisinformationisnotshared betweenmodels.Onceallpartmodels arecompleted,theyarebrought togetherforthefirsttimeinthe assembly.Forexample,theprocessby whichtheMarsroverCuriositywas createdfolloweda“bottom-up” strategy.

Placeexistingpartsand subassembliesintoanassemblyfile, positioningcomponentsbyapplying assemblyconstraints,suchasmate andflush.Ifpossible,placethe componentsintheorderinwhichthey wouldbeassembledinmanufacturing.

Advantage: weknowwhatthepartsare.

Top-downmodelling
	
“Top-down”designisa product-developmentprocess
obtainedthrough3D,parametricand associatedCADsystems.Themain featureofthismethodisthatthe designoriginatesasaconceptand graduallyevolvesintoacomplete productconsistingofcomponentsand sub-assemblies.
“Top-down”beginswiththedesign criteriaandcreatecomponentsthat meetthosecriteria.Designerslist knownparametersandcreatean engineeringlayout.Thelayoutcanbe a2Ddesignthatevolvesthroughout thedesignprocessasshowninthe followingimage.

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Digitalhumans
	
Digitalhumansarecomputer simulationsofavarietyofmechanical andbiologicalaspectsofthehuman body.Theycanbeusedtointeract withavirtualprototype.Human simulationinproductdesignenablesa producttobedevelopedmorequickly, astherecanbemoredesigniterations inlesstime.Thisresultsinhigher productqualitythatmeetshuman requirementsmoreaccurately.Digital prototypesarecheapertoproduce thanphysicalprototypes.Productsare saferasaresultofmorethorough analysisofsafetyaspects.Improved productivityresultsfromenhanced automationofthedevelopment process.

Motioncapture
	
Motioncaptureistherecordingof humanandanimalmovementbyany means,forexample,byvideo, magneticorelectro-mechanical devices.Apersonwearsasetof acoustic,inertial,LED,magneticor reflectivemarkersateachjoint. Sensorstrackthepositionofthe markersasthepersonmovesto developadigitalrepresentationofthe motion. Motioncapturecanreducethecostof animation,whichotherwiserequires theanimatortodraweithereach frameorkeyframesthatarethen interpolated.Motioncapturesaves timeandcreatesmorenatural movementsthanmanualanimation, butislimitedtomotionsthatare anatomicallypossible.
	
“Gollum”fromHobbitisacharacterformedbyusing MotionCapturefilmingtechnique.Thischaractergot anawardwinningformotioncapturemodel.

ComparedtoAvatar,Gollumappearancerevealsallthe musclemovementsandskinreflectiontothelight, showingthetechnologyimprovementovertheyears.

			

Haptictechnology
	
Haptictechnologyisatechnologythat interfacestheuserviaasenseof touch.Alsoknownasforcefeedback technology,haptictechnologyworks byusingmechanicalactuators (motor)toapplyforcestotheuser.By simulatingthephysicsoftheuser’s virtualworld,itispossibletocompute theseforcesintorealtime.Haptic technologyallowstheusertobecome partofacomputersimulationandto interactwithit,enablingthedesigner toobservetheuser’sperformanceand todesignabetteroutcome.Itcanalso beusedinsituationswhereitis difficulttotraininthereal environment.Haptictechnologyis alsousedinfeedbackdevicesusedin homeentertainmentconsoles.

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Virtualreality(VR)
	
Virtualrealityistheabilitytosimulate arealsituationonthescreenand interactwithitinanear-naturalway.

Animation
	
Animationistheabilitytolinkgraphic screenstogetherinsuchawayasto simulatemotionoraprocess.

Finiteelementanalysis (FEA)
	
Finiteelementanalysisinvolvesthe calculationandsimulationofunknown factorsinproductsusingCAD systems,forexample,simulating stresseswithinaweldedcarpart. (virtualmodel)

Usescolourindicationtoshow:
-Structuralload(stressandstrain) -Aerodynamics
-Thermodynamics

Notes:

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3.5Rapidprototyping

Rapid prototyping is the production of a physicalmodelofadesignusingthree-dimensionalCADdata.Thegrowthincomputing power has had a major impact on modelling with computer-aided manufacture. Rapid software and hardware developments allow new opportunities and exciting new technologies to create dynamic modelling of ever-greater complexity. Modelscanbe simulated by designers using software, tested and trialled virtually before sending to a variety of peripheral machines for prototype manufacture in an ever-increasing range of materials. The ease of sending this digital data across continents for manufactureofprototypeshasmajorimplicationsfordataanddesignprotection.

What
	
Howitworks
	
Imageofprocess

Stereolithography (SLA)

(useslaserorlight tosetplasticliquid)
	
Itisaformof3Dprintingusingaliquid bathofresincombinedwithan ultravioletlaser.Theultravioletlighthits theliquidhardeningittoformthe structureoftheobjectbeingprinted.The baseplateofthebaththenmovesdown allowingmoreliquidtoflowoverthe previouslyhardenedliquidsothesame processcanberepeateduntiltheobject beingprintedhasbeencompleted.The ‘Sweeper’seenintheimagetotheright justhelpsevenouttheheightofthe batheverytimethelaserfires.

Laminatedobject manufacturing (LOM)
	
IttakestheslicedCADdatafroma3D modelandcutsouteachlayerfroma rollofmaterial,usingalaserorplotter cutter.Theseslicedlayersareglued togethertoformthemodel,whichis eitherbuiltonamovableplatform belowthemachineoronlocatingpins whenusingcard.

Fuseddeposition modelling(FDM)

(Sameasschool makerbotand Flashforge)
	
Usesan“additive”principlebylaying downmaterialsinlayers. Plastic/metalisunwoundfromacoil andsenttoanextrusionnozzlethatcan turntheflowonandoff. Thenozzleisheatedtomeltthe material,nozzlemovesinhorizontaland verticaldirectionsbyanumerically controlledmechanism(CAM)

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Selectivelaser sintering(SLS)

(useslasertoset plasticpowder)
	
isanadditivemanufacturingtechnique thatusesahigh-powerlaser(for example,acarbondioxidelaser)tofuse smallparticlesofmaterialssuchas plastic,metal(directmetallaser sintering),ceramicorglasspowdersinto amassthathasadesired3Dshape.

Advantagesand Disadvantagesof RapidPrototyping
	
Advantages
-Decreasedevelopmenttime -Decreasecostlymistake
-Increasenumberofvariantsofproduct (sinceeachprintedmodeltakeslesser timetoproduce,thetimesavedcanbe usedtodevelopmoreideas,thus increaseproductivity).
-Increaseproductcomplexity(more complexanddifficultshapescanbe modelled,whichwouldperhapsnotbe possiblewithhand.Foreg.sculptingout anaccuratesphereinamaterial).
-Increaseeffectivecommunication (sincethemodelistangible,various aspectsofthedesignwouldbeeasierto explaintoothers,ascomparedtoCAD. Modelscanalsobetested,which probablywouldbeonlypossiblethrough artificialsimulationfor CADdesigns,and thusunlikeprototypes,thiswouldonly giveanapproximateidea).
-RapidPrototypingcanprovidewith conceptproofthatwouldberequiredfor attractingfunds(easiertoexplain, aestheticscanbefocusedon)
	
Disadvantages
-Somepeopleareoftheopinionthatrapidprototypingis noteffectivebecause,inactual,itfailsinreplicationofthe realproductorsystem.
-Itcouldsohappenthatsomeimportantdevelopmental stepscouldbeomittedtogetaquickandcheapworking model.Thiscanbeoneofthegreatestdisadvantagesof rapidprototyping.
-Anotherdisadvantageofrapidprototypingisoneinwhich manyproblemsareoverlookedresultinginendless rectificationsandrevisions.
-Onemoredisadvantageofrapidprototypingisthatitmay notbesuitableforlargesizedapplications.
-Theusermayhaveveryhighexpectationsabout prototype’sperformanceandthedesignerinunableto deliverthese..

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Topic4 Rawmaterialtofinalproduct

4.1Propertiesofmaterials

Materials are selected for manufacturing products based primarily on theirproperties.Therapidpaceofscientificdiscoveryand new technologies has had a major impact on material science, giving designers many more materials fromwhichtochoosefor their products. These new materials have given scope for “smart”newproductsorenhancedclassicdesigns.Choosingtheright material is a complex and difficult task with physical, aesthetic, mechanical and appropriate properties to consider. Environmental, moralandethicalissuessurroundingchoiceofmaterialsforuseinanyproduct,serviceorsystemalsoneedtobe considered.

DefinePhysicalproperties
	
Thesepropertiestendtobethecharacteristicofmaterialsthatcanbeidentifiedthrough testingthatisconsideredtobenon-destructive,althoughsomedeformationisrequired totesthardness.Thisexceptionisoftenwhyhardnessisoftencatergorisedasa mechanicalproperty.

Definitions
	
Mass-relatestotheamountofmatterthatiscontainedwithaspecificmaterial.Itisis oftenconfusedwithweightunderstandablyasweuseKgtomeasureit.Massisa constantwhereasweightmayvarydependinguponwhereitisbeingmeasured.

Weight-reliesonmassandgravitationalforcestoprovidemeasurablevalue.Weightis technicallymeasureasaforce,whichistheNewton,ieamassof1Kgisequivalentto9.8 Newtons[onearth].

Volume-isthequantityofthree-dimensionalspaceenclosedbysomeclosedboundary, forexample,thespacethatasubstancesolid,liquid,gas,orshapeoccupiesorcontains.

Density- isthemassperunitvolumeofamaterial.It’simportanceisinportabilityin termsofaproduct’sweightandsize.Designcontextsinclude,pre-packagedfood (instantnoodles)issoldbyweightandvolume,packagingfoams.

Electricalresistivity-Thisisameasureofamaterial’sabilitytoconductelectricity.A materialwithalowresistivitywillconductelectricitywell.It'sparticularlyimportantin selectingmaterialsasconductorsorinsulators.

Thermalconductivity-Ameasureofhowfastheatisconductedthroughaslabof materialwithagiventemperaturedifferenceacrosstheslab.It'simportantforobjects thatwillbeheatedormustconductorinsulateagainstheat.

Thermalexpansion(expansivity)-Ameasureofthedegreeofincreaseindimensions whenanobjectisheated.Thiscanbemeasuredbyanincreaseinlength,areaorvolume. Theexpansivitycanbemeasuredasthefractionalincreaseindimensionperkelvin increaseintemperature.It'simportantwheretwodissimilarmaterialsarejoined.These maythenexperiencelargetemperaturechangeswhilestayingjoined.

Hardness-Theresistanceamaterialofferstopenetrationorscratching.Hardnessis importantwhereresistancetopenetrationorscratchingisrequired.Ceramicfloortiles areextremelyhardandresistanttoscratching.

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Mechanicalproperties
	
Tensile strength-Theabilityofamaterialtowithstandpullingforces.Tensilestrengthis importantinselectingmaterialsforropesandcables,forexample,foranelevator.

Compressive strength- Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure towithstandloadstendingtoreducesize,

Stiffness- The resistanceofanelasticbodytodeflectionbyanappliedforce.Stiffnessis important when maintaining shape is crucial to performance, for example, an aircraft wing.

Toughness- The ability of a material to resist the propagation of cracks. Good with resistinghighimpactofotherobjects-e.g.hammer

Ductility- The ability of a materialtobedrawnorextrudedintoawireorotherextended shape. Ductility is important when metals are extruded (not to be confused with malleability,theabilitytobeshapedplastically).

Malleability is the ability for materials to be shaped easily. Thepropertyofasubstance that makes it capable of being extended or shaped by hammering or by pressure from rollers.

What is Young’s modulus, stress andstrain

What is elasticity on the graph. Which part? What does it mean? Giveanexample.

What is plasticity on the graph. Which part? What does it mean? Giveanexample.
	
Young'sModulus- alsoknownasthetensilemodulusorelasticmodulus,isameasure ofthestiffnessofanelasticmaterialandisaquantityusedtocharacterizematerials.It isdefinedastheratioofthestress(forceperunitarea)alonganaxistothestrain(ratio ofdeformationoverinitiallength)alongthataxisintherangeofstress.

Stress=		Force CrossSectionalArea

Strain =	ChangeinLength OriginalLength

This straight line region is known as elastic region and the material can regain its original shape after removal of load. Thestressandstrainaredirectlyproportionalupto pointA.

Point B is known as the Yield Point. Once the material has crossed the Yield Point the materialwillnotreturntoit’soriginalshape,thisisknownastheplasticregion.

The line between AC is not a straight line and strain increases faster than stress. The materialwillchangeinlengthfasteratthesepointsthanatanyotherpoint.

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At this point C the cross sectional area of the material starts decreasing. At pointDthe workpiecechangesitslengthwithalittleorwithoutanyincreaseinstressuptopointE.

Point F is called ultimate stress point orfracturepoint.Amaterialisconsideredtohave completelyfailedonceitreachestheultimatestress.

Measuringwhenamaterialreachesit’sYieldPointiscalledtheYoung’sModulus.

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Aestheticcharacteristics
	
Someaestheticcharacteristicsareonlyrelevanttofood,whileotherscanbeappliedto morethanonematerialgroup.Aestheticcharacteristicsofproductsmakethem interesting,appealing,likeable,orunattractiveandarebasedcompletelyonpersonal preferences.Thesepersonalviewsareaffectedbymood,culture,experience,activation ofthesenses,values,beliefs,etc.Theyareverydifficulttoquantifyscientificallyand people'sreactionstotaste,smell,appearanceandtextureareverydifferent.

Definitions
	
Taste-theabilitytodetecttheflavourofsubstancessuchasfoodandpoisons.

Smell - the ability of humansandotheranimalstoperceiveodors.Considerthescenein Ratatouille (film) where he experiences the taste of food in vibrant technicolor, think about how smells evoke memories, the smell of fresh bread when you enter a supermarket, foodsmellsmakingyouhungry,etc.

Appearance - related to how somethinglooks. Whataproductlookslike.Isitcolourful? masculine? feminin? funny?sexy?sleek?minimal?clean?busy?etc.Theappearanceofa product appeals to different demographics such as age, gender, culture, ethnicity, etc. Shopperplacealargeemphasisoncolour,sodoesbrandrecognitionIECocaCola

Texture - the properties held and sensations caused by the external surface of objects received through the sense of touch. e.g. smoothness of kitchen work surfaces for reasons of hygiene, tiles around a swimming pool (i.e. roughened surface to prevent slipping when wet). Hard, Soft, Abrasive,Smooth.Woodhasagrainpattern,metalhasa coldtexture.

Colour-isthevisualperceptualpropertycorrespondinginhumanstothecategoriesof colours.
●	Opticale.g.opaque,translucent,transparent
●	Coloure.gHot,Cold,Warm,Mellow,Bright,Vivid,Cool
●	 Effectsonemotions. e.g.senseof‘warmth’and‘coldness’i.e.‘warm’ red/orange/yellow‘cool’violet/green/blue.Theuseandapplicationofsuch knowledgeinthedesignedenvironment. e.g.decoration,symbols,artefacts.

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SmartMaterials
	
Smartmaterialshaveoneormorepropertiesthatcanbedramaticallyaltered,forexample,viscosity, volume,conductivity.Thepropertythatcanbealteredinfluencestheapplicationofthesmartmaterial.

TypeofSmart Material
	
Howitworks/whatitcando
	
Design contexts where properties of smart materialsareexploited

Piezoelectricity
	
is a term that is derived fromthegreekmeaning forpiezo,squeezeorpressurewhereelectricityis generated	when	piezoelectric	material	is deformed, The pressure acting upon the materialitgivesoffasmallelectricaldischarge.
	
When a piezoelectric material is deformed, it gives off a small electrical discharge. When an electric current is passedthroughit,itincreasesin size (up to a 4% change in volume). These materials are widely used as sensors in different environments. Piezoelectric materials are used in the airbag sensoronacarasitsensestheforceof an impact on the car and sends anelectriccharge toactivatetheairbag.

Shapememory alloy(SMA's)
	
Metals that exhibit pseudo-elasticity and shape memory effect due to rearrangement of the molecules in the material. Pseudo-elasticity occurs without a change in temperature or electrical voltage. The load on the SMA causes molecular rearrangement, which reverses when the load is decreased and the material springs backtoitsoriginalshape.
	
They can be used to make products for durable andhardertobreak.i.e.Glassesframes

The	shape	memory	effect	allows severe deformation of a material, which can then be returnedtoitsoriginalshapebyheatingit.

Photochromicity
	
Material that can described as having a reversible change of colour when exposed to light. One of the most popularapplicationsisfor colour-changing sunglass lenses, which can darken as the sun light intensifies. A chemical either on the surface of the lens or embedded within the glass reacts to ultraviolet light, which causes it to change form and therefore its light absorptionspectra.
	
welding goggles/ mask. cool tee shirts. “reactor light”sunglasses

Magneto-rheostatic

Electro-rheostatic
	
Electro-rheostatic (ER) and magneto-rheostatic (MR) materials are fluids that can undergo dramatic changes in their viscosity. They can change fromathickfluidtoasolidinafractionof a second when exposed to a magnetic (for MR materials) or electric (for ER materials) field, and theeffectisreversedwhenthefieldisremoved.
	
MR fluids are beingdevelopedforuseincarshock absorbers, damping washing machine vibration, prosthetic limbs, exercise equipment and surface polishing of machine parts. ER fluids have mainly been developed for use in clutches and valves, as well as engine mounts designed to reduce noise andvibrationinvehicle

Thermoelectricity
	
Thermoelectricity is, at its simplest, electricity produced directly from heat. It involves the joining of two dissimilar conductors that, when heated, produce a direct current. Thermoelectric circuits have been used in remote areas and space probes to power radio transmitters and receivers.
	
Nest was co-founded by former Apple engineers Fadell and Rogers in 2010 and now produces a range of household monitoring devices. The temperature monitors uses thermocouples to drive the electrical signaltoprovidethedata.Nest products form part of the interface to create smart systems that are remotely driven through smartphoneapps.

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4.2aMetalsandmetallicalloys

Materials are classified into six basicgroupsbasedontheirdifferentproperties.Typicallyhardandshinywithgoodelectricaland thermal conductivity, metals are a very useful resource for the manufacturing industry. Most pure metals are either too soft, brittle or chemically reactive for practical use and so understanding howtomanipulatethesematerialsisvitaltothesuccessof anyapplication.

Extractingmetalfromore TheEarth'scrustcontains metalsandmetalcompounds suchasgold,ironoxideand aluminiumoxide,butwhen foundintheEarththeseare oftenmixedwithother substances.Tobeuseful,the metalshavetobeextracted fromwhatevertheyaremixed with.
	
A metal ore is a rock containing a metal, or a metal compound, in a high enough concentration to make it economic to extract the metal. The method used to extract metals from the ore in which they are found depends on their reactivity. For example, reactive metals such as aluminium are extracted by electrolysis, while a less-reactive metal such as iron may be extracted by reduction with carbon or carbon monoxide. Thus the method of extraction of a metal from its ore depends on the metal's position in the reactivityseries:

AluminiumExtraction
	
Aluminiumore,mostcommonly bauxite,isplentifulandoccurs mainlyintropicalandsub-tropical areas.Bauxiteisrefinedinto aluminiumoxidetrihydrate(alumina) andthenelectrolyticallyreduced intometallicaluminium.

Steel
	
Blast Furnace using oxygen furnace and the electricarcfurnacecontributetohighrates ofsteelreusability

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Grainsize
	
Metals are crystalline structures comprised of individual grains. The grain size can vary and be determined by heat treatment, particularly how quickly a metal is cooled. Quick cooling results in small grains,slowcoolingresultsinlargegrains.Grainsizeinmetalscan affectthedensity,tensilestrengthandflexibility. Thesmallerthegrainsinthemetalthehigherdensitythemetalis.Higherdensitymeansa lowerflexibilityandsometimetensilestrength.Thetensilestrengthandflexibilitywillalso dependonhowthemetalistemperednormally. Therateofcoolingandtheamountof impuritiesinthemoltenmetalwillaffectitsgrainsize:
●	Gradualcooling-afewcrystalsareformed-largegrainsize ●	Rapidcooling-manycrystalsformed-smallgrainsize.
●	Reheatingasolidmetal/alloyallowsthegrainstructuretore-alignitself.
●	 Directionalcoolinginastructureisachievedbyselectivelycoolingoneareaofa solid.

Theeffectofimpurities(oradditives)inamoltenmetalcaninducealargenumberoffine grainsthatwillgiveastrongerandhardermetal.Thisadditionmustbecarefullycontrolled astoomanyimpuritiesmaycauseanaccumulationatthegrainboundaries,whichwill weakenthematerial.

Modifyingphysicalproperties byalloying,workhardeningand tempering
	
Alloyingisanalloyisamixtureoftwoelements,ofwhichoneisatleastametal -     e.g.CarbonandIronisSteel. CopperandZinc(twometals)createBrass
-	 Adding in different (materials to) metals to ultimately create a harderandstrong metal.

Work hardening or cold working, is the strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation. As the name suggests the metal becomes harder after the process. The metal is not heated at all. The process involves the metal passingthroughasetofrollerstoreduceits thickness, (compressed) grains are deformed. The shape is changed, but the volume remains constant. The defects of these structures reduce the ability for crystals to move within the metal structure, becoming more resistant to more deformation as they recrystallize.Processesinclude-
●	rolling, ●	bending ●	shearing ●	drawing

Annealingisaheattreatmentthataltersthephysicalandsometimeschemicalproperties ofamaterialtoincreaseitsductilityandtomakeitmoreworkable.Itinvolvesheating, maintainingasuitabletemperature,andthencoolingbyslowlyreducingthetemperature overtime.Annealingissofteningthemetalafterworkhardening.

Case Hardening is hardening are processes in which the surface of the steelisheatedto high temperatures (by direct application of a flame, or by induction heating) then cooled rapidly,generallyusingwater;thiscreatesasurfaceofmartensiteonthesurface. Improveshardnessonthesurfaceorcaseofthematerialwhilekeepingtheinnercore untouchedandsostillprocessespropertiessuchasflexibilityandisstillrelativelysoft.

Temperingisaprocessofheattreating,whichisusedtoincreasethetoughnessof metalscontainingiron.Temperingisusuallyperformedafterhardening,toreducesomeof theexcesshardness,andisdonebyheatingthemetalforacertainperiodoftime,then allowedtocoolinstillair.Temperingisreducingbrittlenessafterquenching.

Superalloys
	
Designcriteriaforsuperalloys:
-	Excellentmechanicalstrengthandcreepresistanceathightemperatures -	Corrosionandoxidationresistance

CreepResistance:
-	 Creep isthegradualextensionofamaterialsunderconstantforce.Dependanton temp.andpressure.
-	 Occurs as a result of thermal vibrations of the lattice. Can result in fracture of superalloyduetodevelopmentofcavitiesinthematerial

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OxidationResistance:
-	 Presence of other metals such as chromium ensure that a tight oxide film is formedonthesurface
-	 This restricts access of oxygen to the metal surface sothattherateofoxidation isheavilyreduced.

ApplicationsofSuperalloys:NickelBasedAlloy
-	 Jet Engine Components (Turbine blades operate at high temperature and under extreme stress conditions. In operation they will glow red hot, however they mustbecreepresistant,fatigueandcorrosionresistant.

Recoveryanddisposalofmetals andmetallicalloys
	
-	 car bodies and steelreinforcingrecoveredfromconcretecanberecycledintonew steel
-	moderntechnologiesarecausingasignificantproblem -	20millionto50milliontonnesofe-waste
-	newrecyclingschemesdirectedspecificallyfore-waste
-	 example; Samsung Washing Machine where broken parts can be taken apartandreplacedwithanewone
-	 Aluminium recycling a huge advantage as extraction process is so expensive/damaging to environment therefore we should encouragealu recycling

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Contextswheredifferentmetalsandmetallicalloysareused

Classification and Type	Properties(pro'sandcon's)	Exampleofproducts ofMetal

Ferrousmetals: Steel
	
-	Poorcorrosionresistance -	Tough
-	Ductile
-	Malleable
-	GoodTensileStrength -	Canberecycled
-	RelativelyCheap
	
-	Surgicaltools -	screw
-	nails
-	kitchenutensils
-	usedinallpurposeengineering

Ferrousmetals: Iron
	
-	veryductile -	strong
-	malleable
-	Longlasting
	
-	basicmachinery -	tools
-	buildingstructures
-	 manufacturingcomponentsofcars/ automobiles

Ferrousmetals:Stainless Steel
	
-	highinitialcost
-	difficulttofabricate
-	 difficulttoweldduetohighcarbon content?
	
-	Pipes -	cutlery -	aircraft

NonFerrousmetals: Aluminium
	
-	lightweight
-	easilyworked
-	Malleableandsoft
-	Conductsheatandelectricity -	Corrosionresistant
	
-	Aircraftmanufacture
-	windowframesandsomekitchenware

NonFerrousmetals: Copper
	
-	conductsheatandelectricity -	Corrosionresistant
-	Tough,ductile
	
-     Wiring -     tubing
-	pipework

NonFerrousmetals: Tin
	
-	Soft
-	Corrosionresistant
	
-	Tincans

NonFerrousmetals:Zinc
	
-	Layerofoxide,antiCorrosion -	Easilyworkedwith
	
-	Makesbrass
-	steelcoating(galvanising) -	tanks
-	antirust

NonFerrousmetals: Brass
	
-	Verycorrosive -	Tarnishes
-	Conductselectricitywell
	
-	Ornamentalpurposes -	withinelectricalfittings

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4.2bTimber

Timber is a major building material that is renewable and uses the Sun’s energy to renew itself in a continuous cycle. While timber manufacture uses less energyandresultsinlessairandwaterpollutionthansteelorconcrete,considerationneedstobe giventodeforestationandthepotentialnegativeenvironmentalimpacttheuseoftimbercanhaveoncommunitiesandwildlife.

Characteristicsofnaturaltimber:
	
Natural timber is timber that is used directly from the tree after being seasoned (a controlled drying process). It is actually a type of composite material becauseitismade upofcellulose(woodfibres)heldtogetherwithanaturaladhesive(lignin).
The tensile strength of timber is greater along the grain (fibre) than across the grain (matrix).

Naturaltimberisclassifiedintotwomaincategories:SoftwoodandHardwood.
●	 Softwood comes from coniferous trees. These have needles that are kept year-round.
●	 Hardwood comes from deciduous trees. These are broad leaved and oftenshed theirleavesduringwinter,dependingontheclimate.

Theworld’sforestscanbedividedintotemperateandtropical:
●	 Temperate forests are in the regions between the tropics and the polar areas, mainly in the northern hemisphere. Both hardwoods and softwoods grow in temperate forests. Tropical forests are in the region between the 2 tropics. Generallyonlyhardwoodsarefoundintheseforests.

SeasoningofTimber
	
Twotypesofseasoning-Artificial(Kiln)orNatural

1)AirSeasoning Advantages:Noexpensiveequipmentneeded,Smalllabourcostoncestackismade, Environmentallyfriendly-useslittleenergy

Disadvantages:TakeslongerthanKilnseasoning,largeareaofspacerequiredforalotof wood,itisnotabletoproducetimbernotdryenoughforuseinthedry,centrallyheated airofmodernbuildings

2)KilnSeasoning Advantages:Insectsarekilledduringthisprocess,Requirelittlestackingspace,Moisture contentofthetimbermaybebroughttoanydesiredlevel,Itisdriesquickly,Itcanbe controlled,Achievealowermoisturecontent,Defectsassociatedwithdryingcanbe controlled

Disadvantage:Itisexpensive,Itgivesalittleweakertimberwhencomparedtoair seasoning,requiressupervisionbyaskilledoperator,usesalotofenergy

Conversionoftimber
	
Afteratreehasbeenfelled/cutdownand takentoasawmill,itisconvertedreadyfor seasoning.Afterthetimberdriesout,itiscut intosmallersections.

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Faultswithnaturaltimber
	
Naturalwoodsarealsosubjectto movementssuchassplitting,cupping, warpingandbowing. Allofthesewould makethewoodunusable.

Woodscanalsoformknotswhichare formedwherebranchesgrowfromthe maintrunkorwherethebudwas formed.Knotswillmakethetimber weaker,butit
canbeused froman aestheticpoint ofview.

Characteristicsofnaturaltimber: hardwood
	
-Hardwood trees are mostly deciduous, and are characterised by their broad or large area leaves. hardwoodtreesalsobearfruit,suchasnuts,seedsoracorns,therenameis oftenderivedfromthenameoftheirfruits.Theycan100yearstomature.
-Tropical hardwoods are not classified as deciduous but as angiosperm. but their timber has comparable mechanical properties of strength,hardnessanddurability.hardwoodis mostlyofahigherdensityandhardnessthanasoftwood.
-Aesthetics of hardwoods is usually very appealing. This makes it very desirableandits oftenusedinhigh-qualityfurniture.Thisalsomakesitveryexpensive.
-Hardwoods contain much more fibrous materialthansoftwoods.Thefibersaresmaller and more compact, making it stronger and harder. In general, the greaterthedensityof wood,thegreateritsmechanicalstrength.

Hardwood	Colour/texture	Uses

Beech-Astraight-grained hardwoodwithafinetexture.Light incolour.Veryhardsoisidealtobe usedwhereitisbeingbashedaround andusedoften.Beechisalsovery easytoworkwith.
		
Usedforfurniture, children’stoys,tool handles.Canbesteam bentandlaminates well.

Teak-Averydurableoilywood whichisgoldenbrownincolour. Highlyresistanttomoistureasit containsnaturaloils.
		
Averydurableoily woodwhichisgolden brownincolour.Highly resistanttomoisture andoutdoorweather

Oak-Averystrongwoodwhichis lightincolour.Opengrain.Hardto workwith.Whentreateditlooks veryclassyandelegant.
		
Averystrongwood whichislightincolour. Opengrain.Hardto workwith.When treateditlooksvery classyandelegant.

Mahogany-Aneasytoworkwood whichisreddishbrownincolour.This woodisveryexpensive.Ahardwood.
		
Aneasytoworkwood whichisreddishbrown incolour.Thiswoodis veryexpensive.

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Characteristicsofnaturaltimber: softwood
	
Softwoods

Softwood	Colour/Texture	Uses

Scotspine-Astraight-grained softwoodbutknotty.Lightincolour. Fairlystrongbuteasytoworkwith.
		
UsedforDIYandcheap qualityfurniture.Mainly usedforconstructional workandsimplejoinery.

Spruce-Creamy-whitesoftwood withsmallhardknots.Notvery durable.
		
Usedforgeneralindoor work,whitewoodfurniture usedinbedroomsand kitchens.

Europeanredwood-Quitestrong, Lotsofknots,durablewhen preserved.
		
Usedforgeneral woodwork,cupboards, shelves,roofs.

Softwoods come from coniferous trees which are evergreen, needle-leaved, cone-bearingtrees,suchascedar,firandpine.
Softwoods can often be harder than hardwood. Douglas Fir has a higher tensile and compressive strength than many hardwoods. Balsa wood, although technically a hardwood, is mechanical week, low tensile strength, low hardness and lacking in toughness.

Aesthetics : Softwoods such as pine are very resinous and at times this resin can leak out of the timber. Resin is really sticky and messy and will also come through painted surfaces(itmakesareallybadstain).
Pine will change color if exposed to sunlight for long periods of time. Generally a pale yellow with brown streaks. Softwoods are also prone to decaying and warping,bowing, cuppingandsplitting.

Softwoods are usuallymadeupoftube-likecells(similartoholdingupabunchofstraws together). This would make the softwoodslessdenseandmorepronetowaterdamage. Thetimberabsorbswaterjustlikeaspongeiftheendgrainisexposed.

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MDF	Plywood	Chipboard/Particleboard

Smooth,evensurface. Easilymachinedand paintedorstained.Also availableinwaterand fireresistantforms.
	
Averystrongboard whichisconstructedof layersofveneerwhich aregluedat90degrees toeachother.
	
Madefromchipsofwood gluedtogether.Usually veneeredorcoveredinplastic laminate.

Usedmainlyfor furnitureandinterior panellingduetoits easymachining qualities.Often veneeredorpainted.
	
Averystrongboard whichisconstructedof layersofveneerwhich aregluedat90degrees toeachother.
	
Madefromchipsofwood gluedtogether.Usually veneeredorcoveredinplastic laminate.

Characteristicsofman-made timbers
	
Man-made timbers are composite products that use wood lengths, fibres and veneers along with an adhesive binder and combined under heat and pressure to produce a product.

Highlight characteristics include tensile strength,resistance to damp environments, longevity,aestheticproperties

Advantagesanddisadvantages ofman-madetimbers
		
		Advantages	Disadvantages
	
		availableinlargeflatsheets-2440x 1220mmsocanbeusedforlarge piecesoffurniturewithouthavingto joinpiecestogether
	sharptoolsrequiredwhencutting manufacturedboards,andtoolsandeasily blunted
	
		gooddimensionalstability-theydon’t warpasmuchasnaturaltimber
	difficulttojoinincomparisonwithtraditional constructionmethods-youcannotcut traditionalwoodworkconstructionjointssuch asfingerordovetailjoints
	
		canbedecoratedinanumberofways, eg,withveneersorpaint
	thinsheetsdonotstayflatandwillbow unlesssupported
	
		sheetsofplywoodandMDFareflexible andeasytobendoverformersfor laminating
	cuttingandsandingsometypesofboard generateshazardousdustparticles
	
		wastefromwoodproductioncanbe usedtomakeMDF,chipboardand hardboard.
	edgesmustbetreatedandcoveredtohide unsightlyedgesandtostopwatergettingin,a processcalledconcealingedges;thisalso helpstocreateanappearanceofasolidpiece oftimber.

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Treatingandfinishingtimbers
	
Timber treatments & finishes are used to protect, enhance and improvethemechanical properties.

Timber treatments- are an additive preservative to improve the timber's resistance to attack and improve its durability is enhancedtoalevelwhichissuitablefortheintended use.
-	Wooddestroyingfungi-resultedfrommoisture -	Wooddestroyinginsects-borers,whiteants
eg.Woodpreserver,creosote,stainpreservers

Timber finishes- are applied to the surface of the timber and is usually carried out to achieveoneorbothofthethefollowingreasons:
-	Aesthetics-toimprovethematerialsnaturalbeauty
-	Function-toprotectitfromenvironmentalimpact,heat,moisture
Finished timber requires sanding with abrasive paper to close up the grain leaving smallergaps.
eg.varnish/estapol,finishingoil,woodwax

Timber is seasoned as part of it preparation for commercial use. This process reduces the moisture content so that itbecomesworkable.Theremainingmoisture,albeitsmall, means that the wood never really stabilises and continues to swell and shrink, with humidityandtemperaturevariations.

Recoveryanddisposaloftimbers
	
Reforestation is the process of restoring tree cover toareaswherewoodlandsorforest once existed. If this area never returns to its original state of vegetative cover the destructive process is called deforestation. In order to maintain a sustainable forest industryreforestationisnecessary.

Wood recycling is the process of turning waste timber into usable products. Recycling timber is a practice that was popularized in the early 1990s as issues such as deforestation and climate change prompted both timber suppliers and consumers to turn to a more sustainable timber source. Recycling timber is the environmentally friendliest form of timber production and is very common in countries such as the UK, Australia andNewZealandwheresuppliesofoldwoodenstructuresareplentiful.Timber can be chipped down into wood chips which can be used to power homes or power plants.

Uses for recycled wastewoodincludetraditionalfeedstockforthepanelboardindustry, which still accounts for the majority of recycled wood. Other uses include animal beddings,equestrianandlandscapingsurfaces,playareasandfilterbeds.

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4.2cGlass

The rapid pace of technological discoveries is very evident in the manufacture and use of glass in electronic devices. Different propertieshavebeenpresentedinglassforaestheticorsafetyconsiderationsformanyyearsbutthefutureofglassseemstobe interactivity alongside electronic systems. The structure of glass is not well understood, but as more is learned, its use is becomingincreasinglyprominentinbuildingmaterialsandstructuralapplications.

Characteristicsofglass
	
Glass is a hard, brittle and typically transparent amorphous* solid made by rapidly coolingafusionofsand,sodaandlime.

amorphous- Glass is an amorphous substance (a solid that is not crystalline) made primarilyofsilicafusedathightemperatureswithboratesorphosphates.
transparency- Ability toallowlighttobetransmittedwithminimalscatteringallowinga clearviewthroughmaterial.
chemicallyinert-Lackofreactivitywithothermaterials.
non-toxic-Absenceoftoxicbreakdownproducts/lackofreactivity. brittle-Breaksintonumeroussharpshards.
biocompatibility-Theproductensuresthecontinuedhealthofabiologicalenvironment. hardness-Scratchresistance.
aestheticappeal-Favourableintermsofappearance. electricalinsulator-Reducestransmissionofelectriccharge.
cheap- Abundance of material and high volumeproductionincomparisontoproduction cost.

Applicationsofglass
	
Laminated Glass- 2 thin sheets of glass with an interlayer of plastic in between. It is very strong bonds, retains shards of glass when cracked e.g. iPhone glass cover,car windshield,architecturaluse,bulletproofwindows

ToughenedorTemperedGlass-Outerfaceofglassincompression,innersideofglassin tension, it shatters in small pieces and used for furniture e.g. staircases/floors, architecturaluse

Soda Glass- Has poor thermal shock (shatters when hot water put in glass), expands quickly,cheaptoproduceandusedindrinkingbottles

Pyrex slow expansion/contraction and used for cooking, test tubes, thermometers, overdoors

Gorilla Glass is a brand of specialized toughened glassdevelopedandmanufacturedby Corningforusewithmobiledevices,designedtobethin,lightanddamage-resistant.

Recoveryanddisposalofglass
	
-Faultyandbrokenglassproductsarebrokenup(cullet)andreusedbymixingwithvirgin materialstomakeabatch.Thiscansaveenergyandalsomaterials(virgin).
-No degradation of glass quality in the process so it can be repeated several times. Thereisverylittlewastageduringmanufacture.
-Glassis100%recyclableandcanberecycledendlesslywithoutlossofpurityorquality

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4.2dPlastics

Most plastics are produced from petrochemicals. Motivated by the finiteness of oil reserves and threat of global warming, bio-plastics arebeingdeveloped.Theseplasticsdegradeuponexposuretosunlight,waterordampness,bacteria,enzymes,wind erosion and in some cases pest or insect attack, but in most cases this does not lead to full breakdown of the plastic. When selectingmaterials,designersmustconsiderthemoral,ethicalandenvironmentalimplicationsoftheirdecisions.

Naturalplastics	Semisyntheticplastics	Syntheticplastics

thesearenaturally occurringmaterialsthat canbesaidtobeplastics becausetheycanbe shapedandmouldedby heat.Anexampleofthisis amber,whichisaformof fossilisedpinetreeresin andisoftenusedin jewellerymanufacture.
	
thesearemadefrom naturallyoccurring materialsthathavebeen modifiedorchangedbut mixingothermaterials withthem.Anexampleof thisiscelluloseacetate, whichisareactionof cellulosefibreandacetic acidandisusedtomake cinemafilm.
	
thesearematerialsthat arederivedfrombreaking down,or’cracking’carbon basedmaterials,usually crudeoil,coalorgas,so thattheirmolecular structurechanges.Thisis generallydonein petrochemicalrefineries underheatandpressure, andisthefirstofthe manufacturingprocesses thatisrequiredtoproduce mostofourpresentday, commonlyoccurring plastics.

Rawmaterialsforplastics

Rawmaterialsforplastics
	
Mostmodernplasticsarederivedfromnaturalmaterialssuchascrudeoil,coaland naturalgaswithcrudeoilremainingthemostimportantrawmaterialfortheir production. Polymersaresubstanceswhicharemadeupfrommanymoleculeswhichareformed intolongchains.Thedifferencesinthewaythechainsbondcausethedifferent propertiesinthedifferenttypesofpolymers.

Structureofthermoplastics
	
Thermoplasticsarelinearchainmolecules,sometimeswithsidebondingofthe moleculesbutwithweaksecondarybondsbetweenthechains.Betweenthelongchain moleculesaresecondarybonds whichareweakforcesofattractionbetweenthe molecules.

Thermoplasticscanbeheatedandreformed. Theirpolymerchainsdonotformcross links. Thus,thechainscanmovefreelyeachtimetheplasticsareheated.

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Material
	
Properties
	
Applications

Polypropylene(PP)
	
Light,hard,tough,impactresistant, goodchemicalresistant,canbe sterilised,goodresistanttowork fatigue
	
Usedformedicaland laboratoryequipment, containers,chairs

Polyethylene(PE)
	
tough,resistanttochemicals,soft andflexible,goodelectrical insulator

HIPS
	
Tough,highimpactstrength,rigid, goodelectricalinsulator.

ABS
	
Highimpactstrength,tough, scratch-resistant,lightweight, durable,goodresistanceto chemicals,goodelectricalinsulator
	
Kitchenware,GOProcamera cases,Toys(Lego)

PET:
	
Chemicalresistant,highimpact resistance,tough,hightensile strength,durable, excellentwater andmoisturebarrier
	
Plasticdrinkingbottles

PVC
	
Goodchemicalresistance, weather-resistant,lightweight, goodelectricalinsulator,stiff,hard, tough,waterproof,durable
	
Pipes,Rainwaterpipesand guttering, Windowframesandfascias, Electricalcableinsulation

		

Structureofthermosetting plastics
	
Thermosets are linear chain molecules but with strong primary bonds between adjacentpolymer chains(orcrosslinks).Thisgivesthermosetsarigid3Dstructure.

On first heating, the polymer softens and can be moulded into shape under pressure. However, the heat triggers a chemical reaction in which the molecules become permanently locked together. As a result the polymer becomes permanently ‘set’ and cannot be softened again by heating. Examples of thermosetting plastics are polyurethane,ureaformaldehyde,melamineresinandepoxyresin

Material	Properties	Applications

Polyurethane
	
strongelectricalinsulator(resistance) goodtensileandcompressivestrength goodthermalresistance canbefairlyhardandtough canbeeasilybonded canbeflexibleandelastic
	
Wheels,foam,varnish, paintandglue

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Urea-formalde hyde
	
hightensile(tension)strength highheatdistortiontemperatures lowwaterabsorption highsurfacehardness weight/volumeresistance
	
Tableware Worktoplaminates Buttons Electricalcasings

Melamineresin
	
highelectricalresistivity verylowthermalconductivity/highheat resistance
hard/solid scratchresistant stainresistant
availableinarangeofthicknessesandsizes
	
kitchenutensilsplates, campingbowls(not microwavesafe)kitchen utensilsandplates, laminatedbenchtops

Epoxyresin
	
Tough Chemicalresistance(alsowater)
Fatigueandmechanicalstrength(Tensile strengthandcompressivestrength) Electricalinsulation Temperatureresistant(maintainsformand strength)(Thoughsomearevulnerabletolight) Canbeusedonmetal(Theadhesive)
	
Constructionofaircraft boatsandcars,alsoare usedinelectrical circuitsandgeneral purposeadhesiveand withglassreinforced plastics

Temperatureandrecycling thermoplasticsandthermoset plastics
	
-Thermoplasticssoftenwhenheatedandhardenandstrengthenaftercooling.
-Thermoplastics can be heated, shaped and cooled as often as necessary without causing a chemical change, whilethermosettingplasticswillburnwhenheatedafterthe initialmolding.
-Non-reversible effect of temperature on a thermoset contribute to it not being ableto be recycled. Heating increases the number ofpermanentcross-linksandsohardensthe plastic,sothereforecannotberecycled

Recoveryanddisposalofplastics

Thermoplastics: Heat,Reshape,Cool

Thermosetting Plastics:Landfill,incinerate

Biodegradable Plastics:Buryintheground, landfill
	
Nearly all types of plastics can be recycled, however the extent to which they are recycled depends upon technical, economic and logistic factors. As a valuable and finite resource, the optimum recovery route for most plastic items at the ‘end-of-life’ istobe recycled, preferably back into aproductthatcanthenberecycledagainandagainandso on. The UK uses over 5 million tonnes of plastic each year ofwhichanestimated24%is currentlybeingrecoveredorrecycled.

Recycling: Turning waste into a new substance or product. Includes composting if it meetsqualityprotocols.
●	Providesasustainablesourceofrawmaterialstoindustry
●	 Greatly reducestheenvironmentalimpactofplastic-richproductswhichgiveoff harmfulpollutantsinmanufactureandwhenincinerated
●	Minimisestheamountofplasticbeingsenttothelandfillsites ●	AvoidstheconsumptionoftheEarth’soilstocks
●	Consumeslessenergythanproducingnew,virginpolymers
●	Encouragesasustainablelifestyleamongchildrenandyoung-adults

Bioplastics: To reduce the problems of disposing of plastics they can be designed tobe biodegradable,knownas bioplastics.Theseareplasticsderivedfromrenewablesources, suchasvegetablefatsandoils,cornstarch,peastarchormicrobiota.
Production of oil based plastics tends to require more fossil fuels and to produce more greenhousegasesthantheproductionofbiobasedpolymers(bioplastics).
Some, but not all, bioplastics are designed to biodegrade. Biodegradable bioplasticscan break down in either anaerobic or aerobic environments, depending on how they are manufactured. Bioplastics can be composed of starches, cellulose, biopolymers, and a varietyofothermaterials.

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NaturalFibre	Origin	Enduses

Wool ANIMAL
	
Sheepfleece,goat,alpaca, camels
	
GOODINSULATORTRAPSAIR: sweaters,blankets,socks,coats, tailoredsuitsetc

Cotton VEGETABLE
	
Cottonbollplant
	
HIGHABSORBENCY: nightwear,summerclothes,shirts, underwear,jeans,bedsheets, socks,towels, etc

Silk ANIMAL
	
Silkcocoon.
	
HIGHLUSTRE: eveningdresses,nightwear,ties, cushions,weddingdressesetc
	
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4.2eTextiles

The continuing evolution of the textiles industry providesawidespreadofapplicationsfromhighperformancetechnicaltextiles to the more traditional clothing market. More recent developments in this industry require designers to combine traditional textile science and new technologies leadingtoexcitingapplicationsinsmarttextiles,sportswear,aerospaceandotherpotential areas.

Rawmaterialsfortextiles
	
Fibres can be classifiedasbeingfromanaturalorsyntheticsource.Afibreisanelongated hair like strand or continuous filament. The length exceeds more than 200 times the diameter.

-Wool,linenandcottonareshortfibres.silkisalongcontinuousfilamentfibre.
-Fibrescanbetwistedusingthespinningprocessandconvertedintoyarnor fibrescanbe usedintheirrawformandmanufacturedtocreatefelt.
-Considerabsorbency,strength,elasticityandtheeffectoftemperature

-	manufacturedfromfibres,theorigincanbesubdividedintotwosection -	natural(organic)
-       eitheraplantoranimalorigin -       ex.cotton,linen,woolandsilk
-	synthetic(man-made)
-	createdbychemicalprocesses
-	 polymer-based from oil and coal, others are from glass, metal ceramicandcarbon.

Propertiesofnaturalfibres
	
Properties of wool, cottonandsilkandDesigncontextsinwhichdifferenttypesoftextiles areused
-	originatesfromplants,animalsandminerals -	areusuallyshortfibres(staplefibres)
-	canabsorbmoisture(ex.sweatfromskin)thereforefabricsare‘breathable. -	flammable,easytodye,poorresilience,goodconductorofelectricity
-	sourcesincludecotton,wool,linenandsilk

FibresfromPlants
-	 Cotton: Can be cool or warm to wear as fibres trap air, reducing convective heat loss.Itisdurable,creaseseasily,absorbent,driesslowly
-	Linen:stifferhandle,driesquickly,durable,veryabsorbent

FibresfromAnimals
-	Wool:absorbent,driesslowly,warmtowear,notdurable -	Silk:absorbent,durable,warmtowear,softhandle

Examplesofnaturalfibres

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SyntheticFibre	Enduses

Nylon
	
Rope,fishingfilament,seatbelts,parachutes,luggage, conveyorbelts,outerwear,tents.

Polyester(Dacron)
	
Outerwear,combinedwithotherfibrestoimprovecrease resistance,sportswear,hoses,sails,autoupholstery, carpets.

Lycra(Spandex)
	
Sportswear,combinedwithotherfibrestoimprovestretch, disposablediaper,underwear.
	
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Propertiesofsyntheticfibres
	
●	manmadefibres(usuallyfromchemicalresources) ●	fibresproducedarelongandmuchsmoother
●	mostarethermoplasticandwillsoftenandcontractwhenexposedtoheat. ●	havelowaffinityformoisturecreatingless‘breathable’fabrics.
●	sourcesincludeviscose,acrylic,nylonandpolyester

Examplesofsyntheticfibres

Conversionoffibrestoyarns
	
●	inthebeginning,thestrandsareatangleofloosefibres.
●	 natural fibres, except silk, willbeindifferentlengthstosymbolisethematurityof growth.
●	 natural fibres also require cleaning and refining, and some mixing in order to homogenisethebatch
●	 the fibres are then slightly twisted and thinned outinordertoproducesufficient strengthforhandling
●	wrappingfibresaroundeachotherincreasesstrength ●	theprocessisrepeated,whilelengtheningtheyarn.
●	theyarnthatisformediscalleda‘single’(singlestrandofyarn)

Conversionofyarnsintofabrics: weaving,knitting,lacemaking, andfelting
	
Weaving: undertaken on a machine calledaloomwithtwodistinctstylesofthreadwhich are interlaced togethertoformafabric:warpandweft.Warpthreadsrunlengthwaysona pieceofclothandtheweftrunsacrossfromsidetoside.
-	 there are different kinds and ways to produce a weave; for example a thwill weaveisbyalternatelypassingundertwoandoverone,
-	asmoothsatinfinishisachieved.

Knitting: process of formingfabricsbyloopingasinglethread(byhandwithslenderwires oramachineprovidedwithhookedneedles)
-	 made by making knots, however the destruction of one loop threatens the destruction of the entire web, unless the meshes are reunited (because of the interlockingnatureoftheyarninknittedfabrics)
-	 advantages include: fabric can stretch, low stress on the yarn, large number of stitchtypesareavailable
Lacemaking: lace-work is a stitched fabric patterned with holes, and is now commonly madefromcotton.
-	 it is made by hand with a needle (calledneedlepointlace).bybobbins(alongwith a pins, pillow or a cushion, hence called ‘pillow lace’) or by a machine and is created by looping, plaiting one thread with another, without any backing material.
-	 synthetic threads are often used for machine-manufactured laceandbecauseof their high strength to weight circumstances, detailed and complex patterns are produced.
Felting: felt is made from animal fibres(sheep’swool,rabbitfur),howevertodayitcanbe madefromman-madefibres(viscose)
-	 felt-making process is dependent on the kinks in the fibresandtheirregularities in the surface (to see if the fibres are able to interlock together) good wools, scales are perfectandnumerous,whileininferioronestherearefewerserrations

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(jaggededges)andarelessperfectinstructure
-	 (from wool) progressively depositing layers of cleaned and combed fibers into a largetray,each90degreesfromeachother.
-	 hotsoapywaterassistswithlubricationandreducesfrictionandsothefibrescan moveandbecauseentanglesinthescalesonthefibresurface.
-	theythenbondtoformacloth.
-	(alternative)needlefeltinginvolvescombiningfibresusingspecialfeltingneedles.

Recoveryanddisposaloftextiles
	
Many items of clothing are manufactured and produced in developing countries. Often workingconditionsthatmanypeopleexperiencewhodoarepetitive,lowskilledjob. Other ethicalissuesconnectedtotheproductionandmanufactureoftextilesarelinkedto environmental issues, chemical dyes, washing, finishes, use of pesticides to grow the cropsandlandusageforgrowingthecropsandgrazingfortheanimals.
Development of new textiles and other related technologies needs to consider the sustainabilityissuessuchasrecyclinganddisposal.

●	 Wastage from textiles may be categorized as either pre- or post - consumer. Pre-consumer textile waste is mostly formed of materials that aregeneratedas by-products ofproductionprocesses.Post-consumerwastementionstoclothing orhouseholdtextilesthatisreusedorrecycledinsteadofbeingdisposed.
●	 Recycling involves the reprocessingofusedmaterials(clothing,fabricscraps,etc) andwastefromthemanufacturingprocess.
●	 Once all of the materials are collected, cleanedandsorted,recyclabletextilemay be processed; first mechanically where the fibres are separated before being re-spinned into yarn or chemically through repolymerizing fibres. to again spin intoyarn.
●	 With waste reduction, reuse and recycling results in: Lowering purchase prices, reducing use of virgin materials, reducing disposal costs and landfill, generating less air and water pollution, keeping materials out of the waste stream and preservingthe‘embodiedenergy’usedinmanufacturing.

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4.2fComposites

Composites are an important material in an intensely competitive global market. New materials and technologies are being produced frequently for the design and rapid manufacture of high-quality composite products. Composites are replacing more traditional materials as they can be created with properties specifically designed for the intended application. Carbon fibre has playedanimportantpartinweightreductionforvehiclesandaircraft.

Advantages	Disadvantages

●	highstrength-to-weightratio ●	hightensilestrength
●	weaveoftheclothcanbechosento maximisestrengthandstiffnessof finalcomponent
●	canbewovenindifferentpatternsto createaestheticallypleasingsurface patterns
	
●	veryexpensive
●	requiresspecialistmanufacturing facilities
●     weakwhencompressed,squashed,or subjecttoahighshockorimpact
●	smallairbubblesorimperfectionsof thematrixwillcauseweakspotsand reducetheoverallstrength

Form:fibres/sheet/particlesand matrix
	
Composite materials (also called composition materials or shortened to composites) are materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties, that when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many reasons: common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter or less expensive when compared to traditional materials. One material acts as the matrix, which can be in the form of fibres, sheets or particles with the other as the bondingagent.

Fibres/sheets/particles:textiles,glass,plasticsandcarbon ●	Laminar
Consists of two or more layers of material bonded together usually withanadhesiveto formanewcompositematerialwithimprovedproperties Themostcommonlyrecognizedlaminarmaterialisplywood

Plywood
➔ Manufacturedfromanunevennumberofplys
➔ Applicationwherehighquality,highstrength,largesheetmaterialisrequired ➔ Itisresistanttocracking,breaking,shrinkage,twistingandwarping
➔ Can be used as an engineering material for architectureorlightweightstressed skinapplications(marineandaviationenvironments)

LaminatedGlass
➔ Consists of a sandwich of two layers of glass and a polymer interlayer of Polyvinyl butyral (PVB) joined under heat and pressure in a furnace called an autoclave

➔ When broken the PVB interlayer hold the pieces of glass together (safer) avoidingthereleaseofotherwisedangerousshardsofglass
➔ The fracture produces a pattern of radial and concentric cracks (spider-web mattern)
➔ usedforcarwindscreens

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Laminarcomposites
➔ Laminatesofdifferentmaterialjoinedtogetherinasandwichstructure
➔ Consists of layer of thin or bidirectional fibres or metal sheet held apart by a lightweightcore(foamorhoney-combstylestructure)
●	Fibre-reinforced ●	Particlereinforced

Process:	weaving,	moulding, pultrusionandlamination
	
Weaving: to form (fabric or a fabric item) by interlacing long threads passing in one direction with othersatarightangletothem.

Moulding
Similar to injection moulding, using mix of materials. Or put underhighpressure

Pultrusion is a continuous molding	process	whereby reinforcing         fibers	are saturated      with     a     liquid polymer     resin     and     then carefully formed and pulled through aheateddietoforma part.

Lamination
One of the early materials that was used as part of a lamination process was called Formica. Formica originally consisted of layers of fabric bound together with resin; later, itwasmade with thick pieces of paper laminated with	melamine.	This	tougher substance could resist heat and abrasion, while the paper openedupa wealth of possibilities for printing colours and patterns, which proved keytoitssuccess.

Spray-up
Spray-up is carried out on an open mould, where both the resin and reinforcements are sprayed directly onto the mould. The resin and glass may be	applied	separately	or	simultaneously “chopped” in a combined stream from a chopper gun.Workersrolloutthespray-uptocompactthe laminate. Wood, foam or other corematerialmay then be added, and a secondary spray-up layer embeds the core between the laminates (sandwich construction). The part is then cured, cooledandremovedfromthereusablemould.

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Concrete:Sand,concrete,aggregateandwater aremixedtogether,theyformafluidmassthat iseasilymoldedintoshape.Overtime,the cementformsahardmatrixwhichbindsthe restoftheingredientstogetherintoadurable stone-likematerialwithmanyuses
	
Construction(reinforcedwithSteel)tomake strong

Engineeredwood:ismadebybindingorfixing strands,particlesoffibres,veneersofboardsof woodtogetherwithadhesivesorotherfixing methodstocreatecompositematerials.
	
-MediumDensityFibreboard -Particleorchipboard
-Plywood
-LVL-laminatedveneeredtimer -IjoistsorIbeams

Plywood: isasheetmaterialmanufactured fromthinlayersor"plies"ofwoodveneerthat aregluedtogetherwithadjacentlayershaving theirwoodgrainrotatedupto90degreesto oneanother.
	
Itmaybeusedforwallpanelling,flooring andfurniture.

Particleboard:alsoknownasparticleboardand chipboard,isanengineeredwoodproduct manufacturedfromwoodchips,sawmill shavings,orevensawdust,andasyntheticresin orothersuitablebinder,whichispressedand extruded.Orientedstrandboard,alsoknownas flakeboard,waferboard,orchipboard,issimilar butusesmachinedwoodflakesofferingmore strength.

KevlarisacompositematerialsimilartoCarbon Fibreandiswovenintoaclothwhichcombined withPolyesterresincanbemouldedintoa varietyofcomplexshapes.Itcanalsobewoven intofabricclothtoprotecttheweareralmost likeanindestructiblenet.Kevlaralsohasahigh strength-to-weightrationandisfivetimes strongerthansteel.
	
Kevlarisusedinavarietyofapplications becauseofitsuniqueproperties,including: -bodyprotection,suchasbullet-proofvests Militaryhelmetwherelightweight properties,comfortandflexibilityare important
-sportsequipment,suchasskis,helmets andracquets,wherelightweightproperties andstrengthareimportant
-sailsforwindsurfing,wherethematerial hastowithstandhighspeeds

Carbonreinforcedplastic(GRP)isacomposite materialmadefromplasticandfinefibresof glass.ItisalsoknownasFibreglass.Thestrands arecombinedwithresin(polyesterorepoxy resin)tomakeGRP.Fibreglassandresinontheir ownareweakbutwhencombinedcreateagood strength-to-weightratiomaterial.Itisvery versatileandcaneasilybemouldedinto3D shapes.
	
●	Boathulls ●	Canoes
●	Carbodypanels
●	Chemicalstoragetanks ●	Traincanopies

Laminatedveneerlumber(LVL)isan engineeredwoodproductthatusesmultiple layersofthinwoodassembledwithadhesives. Itistypicallyusedforheaders,beams,rimboard, andedge-formingmaterial.
		
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Compositionandstructureof composites
	
Matrix:thermoplastics,thermosettingplastics,ceramics,metals

Designcontextsinthis compositematerialsisused

Typesandhowused

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Advantages and disadvantages of composite
materials
	
Advantages
They are much stronger than the original material used. Laminated glass forexampleis muchtougher,andshattersless
-Corrosion and Chemical Resistance Composites are highly resistant to chemicals and willneverrustorcorrode
-Highcostoffabricationofcompositesisacriticalissue

Disadvantages
They can not be recycled. Most composites are thermosetting and so it is hard to separateandrecycle

Notes:

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4.3ScalesofProduction

The scale of production depends on the number of products required. Decisions on scale of production are influenced by the volume or quantities required, types of materials usedtomaketheproductsandthetypeofproductbeingmanufactured.There arealsoconsiderationsofstaffing,resourcesandfinance.

Scalesof Production
	
Descriptionofwhyyouwould selectinganappropriatescaleof production
	
Advantages
	
Disadvantages

One-off
	
One-offproductioniswhere onlyoneforafewspecialist itemsarerequired.Ifaprototype ismadethenitusuallypartofthe realisationoftheproductandso thenextstepaftertestingwould bebatchorvolumeproduction.
	
●Unique,highqualityproducts aremade
●Workersareoftenmotivated andtakeprideintheirwork
	
●Verylabourintensive,soselling pricesareusuallyhigher
●Productioncantakealongtime andcanbeexpensiveasspecialist toolsarerequired
●Economiesofscalearenot possible,oftenresultinginamore expensiveproduct

Batchproduction
	
Limitedvolumeproduction(aset numberofitemstobeproduced
	
●Sincelargernumbersare made,unitcostsarelower
●Offersthecustomersome varietyandchoice
●Materialscanbeboughtin bulk,sotheyarecheaper
	
●Workersareoftenlessmotivated becausetheworkcanbe repetitive
●Goodshavetobestoreduntilthey aresold,whichcanbeexpensive

Mass
	
Theproductionoflargeamounts ofstandardizedproductson productionlines,permittingvery highratesofproductionper worker.
	
●LabourCostsareusually lower/minimal
●Materialscanbepurchased inlargequantitiessothey arecheaper/provide excellentbargainingpower
●Largenumbersofgoodsare produced
	
●Machineryisveryexpensiveto buyandsetupforproduction lines
●Workersarenotmotivated ●Notveryflexibleasaproduction
lineisdifficulttoadapt ●Productionprocesswillhaveto
stopwhenrepairsaremade

orContinuous flow
	
Aproductionmethodusedto manufacture,produceorprocess materialswithoutinterruption.

Mass customization
	
AsophisticatedCIMsystemthat manufacturesproductsto individualcustomerorders.The benefitsofeconomyofscaleare gainedwhethertheorderisfora singleitemorforthousands.
	
Masscustomisationusessomeofthetechniquesofmass production;forexample,itsoutputisbasedonasmallnumberof platforms,corecomponentsthatunderlietheproduct.Inthecaseof awatch,theinternalmechanismisaplatformtowhichcanbeadded awidevarietyofpersonalisedoptionsatlaterstagesofproduction.

Notes:

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4.4Manufacturingprocesses

Different manufacturing processes have been developed to innovate existing products and create new products. Designers sometimes engineer products in such awaythattheyareeasytomanufacture.Designformanufacture(DfM)existsinalmostall engineering disciplines, but differs greatly depending on the manufacturingtechnologiesused.Thispracticenotonlyfocuseson thedesignofaproduct’scomponents,butalsoonqualitycontrolandassurance.

Process	Manufacturingtechniques

Additivetechniques
	
Paper-basedrapidprototyping (Layersofpapercutandgluedtogethertocreatea3Dshape)

Laminated object manufacture (LOM) (Layers of material cut and glued together to create a 3D shape)

Stereolithography(Solidificationofpowderusing3Dprinting)

Wasting/ subtractivetechniques

Toremovematerialby cutting,machining, turningorabrading.
	
Cutting(Laser,Saws,Chiseling,Drilling)

Machining(RouterorMillingmachine)

Turning(MetalorWoodLathe)

Abrading(Sanding,Filing,Grinding)

Shapingtechniques

Tochangetheshapeof thematerialwithout wasting
	
Moulding(Injectionmoulding,extrusion)

Thermoforming (Heating plastics and vacuum forming, or using a strip heater to heat and bend acrylic)

Laminating(Flexi-plywoodbygluinglayerstogetheroveraformer/shapedmould)

Casting(Sandcasting,Diecasting-usuallysolidtoliquidthencooled

Knitting(textiles)

Weaving(textiles)

Joiningtechniques
	
Permanent-e.g.Welding,Brazing,Soldering,Popriveting,

Temporary(non-permanentfastening)
Fastening or joining materials mechanically through the use of screws, rivets, bolts, pins, clips, nails, press studs and snaps. The advantage of this technique is the ease for disassembly at the expenseofpermanentdamagetothematerialsusedeg.installingscrews

Adhering-Gluing onceformed,cannoteasilybeseparated

Fusing(welding)
Permanent process involvingtheheatingofthesurfacessuchasmetalsandplastics.Thisprocess isn’trecommendedwhenconsideringdesignfordisassembly.

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4.5Productionsystems

The development of increasingly sophisticated production systems is transforming the way products are made. As a business grows in size and produces more units of output, then it will aim toexperiencefallingaveragecostsofproduction—economies of scale. The business is becoming more efficient in its use of inputs to produce a given level of output. Designers should incorporate internal and external economies of scale when considering different production methods and systems for manufacture.

Type
	
Description/Impactofdifferent productionsystemsonthe workforceandenvironment
	
Advantages
	
Disadvantage

Craftproduction
	
Thistypeofproductionmakesa single,unique,productfromstartto finish.Laborintensive,highlyskilled Itisasmall-scaleproduction processcentredonmanualskills.

eg.buildingships,bridges, handmadecrafts(furniture), tailoredclothing
	
Locallybased,allowingclients toconversedirectlywith manufacture
	
Thistypeofproductionis frequentlyslow

Mayberequiredtohavea varietyofskills

Highcost.

Mechanized production
	
Volumeproductionprocess involvingmachinescontrolledby humans.
	
Lesslaborintensive

Automated production
	
AutomatedProductionisthefastedwayof massproducinggoodsandservices.Itisavolume productionprocessinvolvingmachinescontrolledbycomputers.Pro'sandcon'sofAutomation include:
-Makingcomplexdecisions: Automatedsystemscanmakedecisionsthatarebeyondthecapacity ofpeopletomake.
-Speedofdecisionmaking. Automatedsystemsalsocanmakedecisionsmorequicklythanpeople can.
-Routine,boringjobs.Manypeoplefindrepetitive,simplejobs,suchasworkingonafactory assemblyline,dullanddegrading. Theyhavedifficultymaintainingthelevelof

Assemblyline production
	
Assemblylineproductionisavolumeproductionprocesswhereproductsandcomponentsaremoved continuouslyalongaconveyor.Astheproductgoesfromoneworkstationtoanother,components areaddeduntilthefinalproductisassembled.

Massproduction
	
Massproductionistheproductionoflargeamountsofstandardizedproductsonproductionlines, permittingveryhighratesofproductionperworker.

Masscustomization
	
MasscustomizationisasophisticatedCIMsystemthatmanufacturesproductstoindividual customerorders.Thebenefitsofeconomyofscalearegainedwhethertheorderisforasingleitem orthousands.

Computernumerical control(CNC)
	
CNCreferstothecomputercontrolofmachinesforthepurposeofmanufacturingcomplexpartsin metalsandothermaterials.Machinesarecontrolledbyaprogrammecommonlycalleda“Gcode”. Eachcodeisassignedtoaparticularoperationorprocess.ThecodescontrolX,YandZmovement andfeedspeeds.

Productionsystem selectioncriteria
	
Thisisdependentonwhattypeofproductionmethodthatisselectedforaproduct.

Productionsystemselectioncriteriaincludetime,labour,skillsandtraining,healthandsafety,cost, typeofproduct,maintenance,impactontheenvironmentandqualitymanagement

E.g.MightbebettertoInjectionmouldaproductcasefrom3partsratherthan1partasitmightbe easierandquickertodofinalassembly.

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Designfor manufacture(DfM)
	
Designformanufacture(DfM)meansdesignersdesignspecificallyforoptimumuseofexisting manufacturingcapability.Designersneedtoconsiderdesigningproductssotheycanbeeasilyand efficientlymanufacturedwithminimalimpactontheenvironment.DesignforManufacturecanbea constraintonthedesignbrief.DesignforManufactureinvolvesDesignforProcess,Designfor MaterialsandDesignforAssembly/Disassembly.
TherearefouraspectsofDfM.

Designformaterials:designinginrelationtomaterialsduringprocessing. Theselectionofmaterialsisanimportantconsiderationforadesigner.Itcanaffectenvironmentalat eachstageoftheProductCycle,frompre-productiontodisposal.Forexample,thechoiceofa thermoplasticmaymeananimpactontheenvironmentthroughtheextractionofoil,however thermoplasticsarehighlyrecyclablemeaninglessofanimpactatthedisposalstage,providingthey arerecycledandnotsenttolandfillorincinerated.Minimisingtheamountofmaterialsandusing non-toxicorbiodegradablealternativescanalsoreducetheimpactontheenvironment.

Designforprocess:designingtoenabletheproducttobemanufacturedusingaspecific manufacturingprocess,forexample,injectionmoulding. Whendesigningorredesigningproducts,designersshouldconsiderhowthemanufactureofparts andcomponentscanbeachievedefficientlyandwithminimalwaste.Forexampleinjectionmoulding isanextremelyenergyefficientprocesswithminimalwasteproduced.

Designforassembly:designingtakingaccountofassemblyatvariouslevels,forexample, componenttocomponent,componentsintosub-assembliesandsub-assembliesintocomplete products

Designfordisassembly:designingaproductsothatwhenitbecomesobsoleteitcaneasilyand economicallybetakenapart,thecomponentsreusedorrepaired,andthematerialsrepurposedor recycle. Byminimisingcomponents,assemblycanbemadetobequickerandmoreefficient.Inaddition,using standardcomponentscandecreasemanufacturingtime.Moreandmoredesignersareconsidering howtheirdesignscanbedisassembled.Thismeansthatdifferentmaterialscanbeseparatedfor recyclingortomakerepairorreconditioningeasierresultinginlessproductsbeingsenttolandfill.

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4.6Robotsinautomatedproduction

The development of increasingly sophisticated robotic manufacturing systems is transforming the way products are made. Designers should consider the benefits of increased efficiency and consistency when using robots in production and beableto explore the latest advances in technology to ensure the optimum manufacturingprocessisused.However,agooddesignerwill also understand their responsibility to consider the moral and ethical issues surrounding increased use of automation, andthe historicalimpactoflostjobs.

Primary	characteristics ofrobots
	
A robot is defined as an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications. The introduction of robots to an assembly line has had a major impact on the labour force, often making skilled workers redundant in favour of a technicianwhocanmaintainandequipalargenumberofrobots.

Workenvelope
	
The 3D space a robot can operate within, considering clearance and reach. Thesedistancesare determined by the length of a robot's arm and the design of its axes. Each axis contributes its own range of motion. A robot can only perform within the confines of this work envelope. Still, many of the robots are designed with considerable flexibility. Some have the ability to reach behind themselves. Gantry robots defy traditional constraints of work envelopes. They move alongtracksystemstocreatelargeworkspaces.

LoadCapacity
	
Withinthiscontext,theweightarobotcanmanipulate

Advantagesofusingrobotic systemsinproduction
	
Disadvantagesofusingrobotic systemsinproduction

Single-taskrobots
	
-Reduceschanceoferror
-Learnabilityfortheoperator
	
-Expensiverelativetotheoutcome
-Long process as little can be done with only singletaskrobots

Multi-taskrobots
	
-Manufacture is sped up, more efficiency and
-Inputsandoutputscanbevaried
	
-Increasedchanceoferror

Teamsofrobots
	
-Increasedefficiencyandversatility -Needtoholdpartsinplacewhile performingothertaskse.g.welding
-Productionlineprocesses–requireteams ofrobotstoperformdifferenttasksat differentstages.

Robotsexhibitvaryingdegreesofautonomy (abilitytoworkindependently,without humaninput.

Somerobotsareprogrammedtofaithfully carryoutspecificactionsoverandover again(repetitiveactions)withoutvariation andwithahighdegreeofaccuracy.These actionsaredeterminedbyprogrammed routinesthatspecifythedirection, acceleration,velocity,decelerationand distanceofaseriesofcoordinatedmotions.
	
Otherrobotsaremuchmoreflexibleastothe orientationoftheobjectonwhichtheyare operatingoreventhetaskthathastobe performedontheobjectitself,whichtherobot mayevenneedtoidentify.

Forexample,formorepreciseguidance,robots oftencontainmachinevisionsub-systemsacting astheir"eyes",linkedtopowerfulcomputersor controllers. Artificialintelligenceorwhatpasses forit,isbecominganincreasinglyimportant factorinthemodernindustrialrobot.

Machinetomachine (M2M)
	
(M2M)referstowiredandwirelesscommunicationbetweensimilardevices.Inproduct restocking,forexample,avendingmachinecanmessagethedistributorwhenaparticularitemis runninglow.M2Mcommunicationisanimportantaspectofwarehousemanagement,remote control,robotics,trafficcontrol,logisticservices,supplychainmanagement,fleetmanagement andtelemedicine. ItformsthebasisforaconceptknownastheInternetofThings(IoT).

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KeycomponentsofanM2Msystemincludesensors,aWi-Fiorcellularcommunicationslinkand autonomiccomputingsoftwareprogrammedtohelpanetworkeddeviceinterpretdataandmake decisions

Firstgenerationrobots
	
First-generationrobotsareasimplemechanicalarmthathastheabilitytomakeprecisemotions athighspeed.Theyneedconstantsupervisionbyahumanoperator. Theoperationofthesemachinesmustbeconstantlysupervised,becauseiftheygetoutof alignmentandareallowedtokeepworking,theresultcanbeaseriesofbadproductionunits.

Secondgenerationrobots
	
Second-generationrobotsareequippedwithsensorsthatcanprovideinformationabouttheir surroundings.Theycansynchronizewitheachotheranddonotrequireconstantsupervisionbya human;however,theyarecontrolledbyanexternalcontrolunit.
Second-generationrobotscanstaysynchronizedwitheachother,withouthavingtobeoverseen constantlybyahumanoperator.Ofcourse,periodiccheckingisneededwithanymachine, becausethingscanalwaysgowrong;themorecomplexthesystem,themorewaysitcan malfunction.

Thirdgenerationrobots
	
Third-generationrobotsareautonomousandcanoperatelargelywithoutsupervisionfroma human.Theyhavetheirowncentralcontrolunit.Swarmsofsmallerautonomousrobotsalsofit inthiscategory. Therearesomesituationsinwhichautonomousrobotsdonotperformefficiently.Inthesecases, afleetofsimpleinsectrobots,allunderthecontrolofonecentralcomputer,canbeused.These machinesworklikeantsinananthill,orlikebeesinahive.Whiletheindividualmachineslack artificialintelligence(AI),thegroupasawholeisintelligent.

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Topic5 Innovation+Design

5.1Invention

The protection of a novel idea of how tosolveaproblemisamajorfactorincommercialdesign.Inventionbyloneinventorsorin collaborative, creative teams is at the forefront of design. Designers must not only be creative and innovative, but also understand the concepts thatwillmakeanewproductviable.Adesignermustuseimaginationandbefirmlygroundedinfactual andproceduralknowledgewhilerememberingtheneedsandlimitationsoftheenduser.

DefineanInvention
	
Invention is the process of discovering a principle which allows a technical advance ina particularfieldthatresultsinanovel/newproduct.

DriversforInvention/Motivation forInvention
	
Drivers for invention include personal motivation to express creativity/for personal interest, scientific or technical curiosity, constructive discontent, desire to make money, desiretohelpothers.Afewofthemanyreasonsthatdriveinventionarelistedbelow
●	 a personal motivation to invent in order to express one’s creativity or personal interest
●	scientificand/ortechnicalcuriosity
●	constructivediscontentwithanexistinginvention/design ●	desiretomakemoney
●	desiretohelpothers.

TheLoneInventor Whataretheadvantagesand disadvantagesofbeingalone inventor
	
The lone inventor is an individual working outside or inside an organization who is committed to theinventionofanovelproductandoftenbecomesisolatedbecauseheor she is engrossed with ideas that imply change and are resisted by others. Individuals withagoalofthecompleteinventionofanewandsomewhatrevolutionaryproduct.
●	Haveideasthatarecompletelynewanddifferent.
●	 May not comprehend or give sufficient care to the marketing and salesoftheir product.
●	Areusuallyisolated,andhavenobackingtowardstheirdesign.
●	 Are having a harder time to push forward their designs, especially in a market wherelargeinvestmentsarerequiredforsuccess.
●	 Their ideas, because of how different they are are often resisted by other employeesandworkers.

IntellectualProperty(IP)
	
A legal term for intangible property such as "creations of the mind" such as inventions and designs that are used in a commercial setting. Intellectual property is protected by law.

WhatarethebenefitsofIP
	
Benefits of IP include differentiating a business from competitors, sellingorlicensingto provide revenue streams, offering customers something new and different, marketing/branding,itsvalueasanasset.Thebenefitsofintellectualpropertyinclude:
●	differentiatingabusinessfromcompetitors
●	allowingsaleorlicensing,providinganimportantrevenuestream ●	offeringcustomerssomethingnewanddifferent
●	marketing/branding
●	establishingavaluableassetthatcanbeusedassecurityforloans.

Whatareeffectivestrategiesfor protectingIP
	
Patents: “An agreement from a government office to givesomeonetherighttomakeor sellanewinventionforacertainnumberofyears”.

Trademarks: A trademark is a recognisable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or servicesofothertraders.

Copyright: Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country, that grants the creatorofanoriginalworkexclusiverightstoitsuseanddistribution,usuallyforalimited

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time, with theintentionofenablingthecreator(e.g.thephotographerofaphotographor theauthorofabook)toreceivecompensationfortheirintellectualeffort.

Patentpending
	
Anindicationthatanapplicationforapatenthasbeenappliedforbuthasnotyetbeen processed.Themarkingservestonotifythosecopyingtheinventionthattheymaybe liablefordamages(includingback-datedroyalties),onceapatentisissued.

Firsttomarket
	
When a company or a person has or think they have a innovative idea or product, therefore will rush to have it on the marketbeforeanyoneelse.Someinnovatorsdecide not to protect their IP asanalternativestrategiestoensuresuccessbyallowingthemto getfirsttomarketratherthanspendmoneyonpatentsorwastetime.

Shelvedtechnologies-Reasons whysomepatentedinventions areshelved
	
Technology that is shelved for various reasons. Sometimes shelved technologieswillbe rediscoveredortakenofftheshelf.

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5.2Innovation

There are many different types of innovation. Designers will be successful in the marketplace when they solve long-standing problems, improve on existing solutions or find a “product gap”. The constant evaluation and redevelopment ofproductsiskey, withunbiasedanalysisofconsumersandcommercialopportunities.

DefineanInnovation
	
Thebusinessofputtinganinventioninthemarketplaceandmakingitasuccess.

Reasonswhyinventionsbecome innovations
	
Fewinventionsbecomesuccessful innovationsduetothefollowingreasons: ●	Marketability-Lowproductdemandornotreadilysaleable
●     Financial support- There is little monetary backing from theorganisationoran outsider.Theinventionwouldneedmoresponsorstofinanciallyaidtheproduct.
●	 Marketing- Is the process of getting products from the producer or vendor to the consumer orbuyer,whichincludesadvertising,shipping,storing,andselling. Poor marketing strategies or wrong targetmarkets.Inventionwouldneedtobe advertisedasaproductthepublicwouldwant.
●	 The need for the invention- Examples include alternative energy resources to combatourinsatiableneedforoilhoweverifoilpricesareloworthereisaready supplyofoilthenthealternativeenergyinventionwillnottakehold.
●	 Price- Affordable, cost effectiveness or value for money … therefore it maybe too expensive to purchase, or to manufacture and the consumermaynotseeit worth its cost compared to itsuse.Keepinmind,theproduct’spriceneedstobe equivalent to the income of the specific age group that would buy the majority oftheproduct.
●	 Resistance to change- People and organisations can beresistantandreluctant to change, feeling comfort and security in the familiar thus resist new ideas/products.
●	 Aversion to risk- “Risk aversion is a concept in economics, finance, and psychology related to the behaviour of consumers and investors under uncertainty”.

SustainingInnovation
	
Innovative ideas that areconstantlyupdatedinordertomaintaintheirsuccess.Anewor improvedproductthatmeetstheneedsofconsumersandsustainsmanufacturers.

DisruptiveInnovation
	
A product or type of technology that challenges existing companies to ignore or embrace technical change. Examples include the iPod which changed the way we managed and listened to music. Mobile phones so we werenolongerrestrictedtolandlines.

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ProcessInnovation
	
An improvement in the organization and/or method of manufacture that often leads to reduced costs or benefits to consumers. Example is in the automobile industry such as Ford with the introduction of assembly line production and Toyota with lean manufacturing.

ArchitecturalInnovation
	
The technology of the componentsstaysthesame,butthe configuration of the components is changed to produce a new design. Putting existing components togetherinnovel ways.Examplesinclude:electriccars,SonyWalkman

ModularInnovation
	
Thebasicconfigurationstaysthesame,butoneormorekey componentsarechanged.Exampleincludeanewtypeof switch/buttononatoaster. Alsoknownasincrementaldesign

ConfigurationalInnovation

Modifying arrangements of components to improve performance, usabilityandfunction (buttons,interface,dials,betterheatingelement,4slotsratherthan2,etc).

RadicalInnovation
	
Changing the paradigm ofthemarketthatthenew product is produced in: invention of smartphones changedthephoneindustry.

It is similar to diffusion but the difference isthata radical innovation might not be successful as it might not be accepted into the marketplace e.g. SinclairC5electriccar

Radical	could	include	new	materials, manufacturing,etc.

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Innovationstrategiesformarkets: Diffusionandsuppression
	
Diffusion:isaprocesswhereamarketwillacceptanewideaorproduct.Therateit acceptsthenewideaorproductcanbeincreasedbyseveralfactors.
●	 Examplesofwidelydiffusedproductsincludethe,lightbulb, refrigerator(100%), ATMcards,MusicCD’s(nowmp4format).
●	Oncewidelyacceptedtheyoftenbecomedominantdesigns.

Suppression:isaprocesswhereanewideaoradoptionofaproductbythemarketis activelyslowed.Thismaybeduetodifficultiescompetingwithadominantdesign, ambiguityoverpatentownership,competingcompaniesactivelypetitioningagainsta newproductitperceivesasthreatening,orthenaturalresistancetoanunfamiliar concept.

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5.3Strategiesforinnovation

Designers have a range of strategies for innovation.Companiesencourageadvancementsintechnologyandservices,usuallyby investing in research and development (R&D) activities. Even though theR&Dmaybecarriedoutbyarangeofdifferentexperts from varied fields of research, the development process is often based on common principles and strategies to identify the directionofdevelopment.ThismethodologystructurestheR&Dofnewtechnologiesandservices.

		

Actofinsight
	
Often referred to as the “eureka moment”, a sudden image of a potential solution is formed in the mind, usually after a period of thinking about a problem.SuchasNewton watchinganapplefallandgaininginsightingravitationforces.

Adaptation
	
A solution to a problem in one field is adapted for solving a problem in another field. The	principle of how a hovercraft workswasadaptedthehoverlawnmower.

Technologytransfer
	
Technologicaladvancesthatformthebasisofnewdesignsmaybeappliedtothe developmentofdifferenttypesofproducts/systems,forexample,lasertechnology. LasertransferredintosurgeryoraudioordataCDs

Analogy
	
An idea from one context is used to stimulate ideas for solving a problem in anothercontext.Sonarmodelledonhow bats navigate and used now in ships to check depth or placementoffish.

Chance
	
An unexpected discovery leads to a new idea. Velcro was developed when a chap walking with his dog found lots of seed pods stuck to his socks and dog. He looked under the microscope and made his discovery of the pods havingmany littlehooks

Technologypush
	
Scientific research leads to advances in technology that underpin new ideas. This is wherethedrivingforceforanewdesignemergesfromatechnologicaldevelopment.The Sonywalkmanisanexample.

●	 Innovationiscreated,thenappropriate applicationsaresoughttofitthe innovation
●	 Didthemarketask“pleasegivemean iPodwithdownloadstore”oracamera phone?Mostlikelynot;sothiswouldbe atechnologypush

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Marketpull
	
Anewideaisneededasaresultofdemandfromthemarketplace.Thecarmarketwhich hasseparatesectorsforthesupermini,familycars,mini-vans,executivecars,sports cars,SUV,andsoon.
“Market”Pullapproaches:
●	Implementedonplatforms
●	Platformsareopenendedandcanevolvebasedonchangingneeds ●	Haslowmarketrelatedriskbecauseapplicationisknown
●	Haslowtechnologyrelatedriskbecausesolutionisnotknown
●	 Whenthemarketasksforbettersafetyfeaturesinacarthenthiswouldbe marketpull.

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5.4Strategiesforinnovation

There are three key roles in invention and innovation, which can be shared by one or more people. Collaborative generation of knowledge and high efficiency information flow allow for diversity, increased resilience, reliability and stability within an organization. Through participatory research, stakeholders can make full use of the resulting innovation and invention, by transferring findings relevant to the sector in which they are positioned. A designer’s increased awareness through shared industryknowledgeenhancesprofitabilityandpolicy.

TheLoneInventor
	
The lone inventor is an individual working outside or inside an organization who is committed to theinventionofanovelproductandoftenbecomesisolatedbecauseheor sheisengrossedwithideasthatimplychangeandareresistedbyothers. Loneinventorsare:
●	 Individuals with a goal of the complete invention of a new and somewhat revolutionaryproduct.
●	Haveideasthatarecompletelynewanddifferent.
●	 May not comprehend or give sufficient care to the marketing and salesoftheir product.
●	Areusuallyisolated,andhavenobackingtowardstheirdesign.
●	 Are having a harder time to push forward their designs, especially in a market wherelargeinvestmentsarerequiredforsuccess.
●	 Their ideas, because of how different they are are often resisted by other employeesandworkers.

TheProductChampion
	
An influential individual, usually working within an organization, who develops enthusiasm for a particular idea or invention and “champions” it withintheorganization.

ProfileofaProductChampion
●	Hasbusinessexperienceinthedomain ●	Canspeakintelligentlyabouttheissues ●	Actsasagoodfacilitator
●	Worksandplayswellwithothers
●	Acceptsresponsibilityfortheproduct
●	 Defendstheteam’sabilitytoproducethe product
●	Iswillingtomakeharddecisionsaboutscope
●	Treatstheteamasknowledgeableprofessionals ●	Setsreasonableperformanceexpectations
●	Communicateswiththeteam,thecustomer,management,sales,andmarketing ●	Hasawillingnesstolearn—fromeveryone
●	Doesn’ttrusteveryone;doestrusttherightpeople

TheEntrepreneur
	
An influential individual who can take an invention to market, often by financing the development, production and diffusion of a product into the marketplace. Profile of an Entrepreneur
●	Businessacumen ●	Self-control
●	Self-confidence ●	Senseofurgency
●	ComprehensiveAwareness ●	Realism
●	ConceptualAbility
●	StatusRequirements
●	InterpersonalRelationships ●	EmotionalStability

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Rolesoftheproductchampion andentrepreneurinthe innovationofproductsand systems
	
Sometimes an inventor may have developed skills or profiles of a product champion and/orentrepreneur.JamesDysonandThomasEdisonaretwoexamples.
Edison (later it was discovered that Swan invented the light bulb) used profits from his earlierinventionstobringthelightbulbtomarket.

James Dyson is an example of an inventor, product champion and/or entrepreneur. He invented the cyclonetechnologyforsuction.Atfirstno-onewasinterestedinthisradical design so he ‘championed’ his product until he found a Japanese companywouldwould take it on. Later he would use the profits to further improvements and novel products. Hebuildanunderstandingofbusiness.

ComparisonbetweenLone InventorandProductchampion
	
The lone inventor may lack the business acumen to push the invention through to innovation. The productchampionisoftenaforcefulpersonalitywithmuchinfluenceina company. He or she is more astute at being able to push the idea forward through the various business channels and is often abletoconsiderthemeritsoftheinventionmore objectively.

Inventorsoftentaketheroleofproductchampionand/orentrepreneurbecause… ●	Theirproductorideaisnovel
●	Toonovelor‘outthere’foracompanytotakeariskon ●	Can'tfindabackerorcompanytoproduceit
●	Theinventorwillhaveto‘champion’theirproducttodifferentcompanies

Theadvantagesand disadvantagesofmultidisciplinary approachtoinnovation
	
Effectivedesigndrawsfrommultipleareasofexpertise,andthisexpertisecanbeutilized atdifferentstagesofproductdevelopment.
Most productsarenowextremelycomplexandrelyonexpertisefromvariousdisciplines. Mostdesignsaredevelopedbymultidisciplinaryteams.
●	ModernProductssuchassmart-phones,printer/scannersareverycomplex. ●	Requiresknowledgefrommanydisciplines.
●	 It would be unlikely that a lone inventor would have the expertise in all the disciplines.
●	Mostmoderndaydesignsaredevelopedinmultidisciplinaryteams

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5.5Productlifecycle

There are several key stages in the product life cycle. Designers need to considerthewholeproductcycleofpotentialproducts, services and systems throughout the design cycle and beyond. Products may have an impact not only on the direct consumer butalsoonsocietyatlargeandtheenvironment.

Keystagesoftheproductlife cycle:launch,growth,maturity, decline.Includingexamplesof productsatdifferentstagesofthe productlifecycleincludingthose newtothemarketandclassic designs
	
1. Launch:Thereareslowsalesandlittleprofitastheproductislaunchedonthe market.
2. Growth:Themarketgraduallyacceptstheproduct,sodiffusionstartsandsales expand.
3. Maturity:Salespeakbutremainsteady,somaximumprofitisachieved.
4. Decline:Marketsaturationisreachedandsalesstarttoreduceaswellasprofit.

Obsolescence:planned,style (fashion),functional,technological
	
Obsolescenceaffectstheproductlifecycle.
Planned: A product becomes outdated as a conscious act either to ensure a continuing market or to ensure that safety factors and new technologies can be incorporated into laterversionsoftheproduct.
Style (fashion): Fashions and trends change over time, which can result in aproductno longer being desirable. However, as evidenced by the concept of retro styling and the cyclicnatureoffashion,productscanbecomedesirableagain.
Functional: Over time, products wear out and break down. If parts are no longer available,theproductcannolongerworkinthewayitoriginallydid.Also,ifaservicevital toitsfunctioningisnolongeravailable,itcanbecomeobsolete.
Technological: When a new technology supersedes an existing technology, the existing technology quickly falls out of use and is no longer incorporated into new products. Consumersinsteadoptforthenewer,moreefficienttechnologyintheirproducts.

Lengthoftheproductlifecycle consideringtheeffectoftechnical developmentandconsumer trends
	
-Lengthoftheproductlifecycleconsideringtheeffectoftechnicaldevelopment
-Lengthoftheproductlifecycleconsideringtheeffectofconsumertrendsincluding fashion

Productversioning/generations
	
Abusinesspracticeinwhichacompanyproducesdifferentmodelsofthesameproduct, andthenchargesdifferentpricesforeachmodel.ProductVersioningisofferingarange ofproductsbasedonacoreorinitialproductmarketsegments.Acompanycanmaintain apioneeringstrategyandconsistentrevenueflowbyintroducingnewversionsor generationsofaproducttoamarket.Appleusesthisstrategyeffectively,creating multipleversionsandgenerationsoftheiriPod®,iPhone®andiPad®products.

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Advantagesanddisadvantages foracompanyofintroducingnew versionsandgenerationsofa product
	
Advantagesanddisadvantagesforacompanyofintroducingnewversionsand generationsofaproduct
●	Improvedconsumerchoice:consumerscanchoosetheversionthatssuitsthem. ●	Improvedconsumerchoice:canchooseabudgetlevelsuchasQuickentax
software
●	Maximiseprofitsforthecompanyhopefullythroughincreasedsales.

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5.6Rogers’characteristicsofinnovationandconsumers

Innovations take time to diffuse into a target audience. Rogers’ four main elements that influence the spread of new ideas (innovation, communication channels, time and a social system) rely heavily on human capital. The ideas must be widely accepted in order to be self sustainable. Designers must consider various cultures and communities topredicthow,whyandat whatratenewideasandtechnologywillbeadopted.

TheimpactofRogers’five characteristicsonconsumer adoptionofaninnovation
	
Five characteristics identified by Rogers that impact on consumer adoption of an innovation:Relativeadvantage;Compatibility;Complexity;Observability;Trialability:

1. Innovation/Relative advantage – is the “the degreetowhichtheinnovationis perceived as betterthantheideaitsupersedes.Relativeadvantagereferstothe extent to which the innovation is more productive, efficient, costs less, or improvesinsomeothermanneruponexistingpractices”.
2. Compatibility – is ‘the degree to which the innovation is perceived as being consistent with existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters.	An innovation must be considered socially acceptable to be implemented. And some innovations require much time and discussion before theybecomesociallyacceptable’.
3. Complexity (simplicity) – is “the degree to which the innovation isperceivedas difficulttounderstandanduse”.
4. Observability – is “the degree to which the results oftheinnovationarevisible toothers.Thechancesofadoptionaregreateriffolkscaneasilyobserverelative advantages of the new technology. In fact, after some adopt, observability can improvethediffusioneffect,acriticalcomponentoftechnologytransfer”.
5. Trialability – is “the degree to which the innovation maybeexperimentedwith on a limitedbasis.Innovationsareeasiertoadoptiftheycanbetriedoutinpart, onatemporarybasis,oreasilydispensedwithaftertrial”.

Socialrootsofconsumerism
	
Issuesforcompaniesintheglobalmarketplacewhenattemptingtosatisfyconsumer needsinrelationtolifestyle,valuesandidentity. Consumerismisconcernedwithprotectingcustomersfromallorganisationswhere thereisanexchangerelationship.Therootsofconsumerismcanbetracedthrough: disillusionmentwiththesystem;theperformancegap;theconsumerinformationgap; antagonismtowardadvertising;impersonalandunresponsivemarketinginstitutions; intrusionsofprivacy;declininglivingstandards;specialproblemsofthedisadvantaged; differentviewsofthemarketplace.

Theinfluenceofsocialmediaon thediffusionofinnovation
	
Consumers can influence diffusion of innovation. When considering the influence of social media in rallying support for boycotting of some products/systems, students can explore the concepts behind organizations such as Kickstarter, Sellaband, Seedrs and CrowdCube, which act as crowd-funding platforms for creative products and projects. They can also examine the role of social networks such as Facebook®, LinkedIn® and Twitter®asmethodsofraisingbrandawareness.

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Theinfluenceoftrendsandthe mediaonconsumerchoice
	
You will need to considerhowconsumerchoicesareinfluencedbytrendsandthemedia, including advertising through magazines, television, radio, sponsorship and outdoor advertising; product placement through film and television; product endorsement; and soon.

Categoriesofconsumersinclude innovators,earlyadopters,early majority,latemajority,laggards

Thisinrelationtohow adoptconsumerstechnology:
●	 Innovators (risk takers) – are the first individuals to adopt an innovation. They arewillingtotakerisks.
●	 Early adopters (hedgers) – are the second fastest category to adopt an innovation.
●	 Early majority (waiters) – the third group, tends to take more time toconsider adopting new innovations and is inclined to draw from feedback from early adoptersbeforetakingtheriskofpurchasingnewproducts/systems.
●	 Late majority (skeptics) – adopts theinnovationafterithasbeenestablishedin themarketplaceandisseldomwillingtotakeriskswithnewinnovation.
●	 Laggards (slow pokes) – arethelasttoadoptaninnovation.Theytendtoprefer traditionsandareunwillingtotakerisks.

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5.7Innovation,designandmarketingspecifications

Successful innovations typically start with detailed design and marketing specifications. Designers must establish clear parameters for a marketing specification in order tocreateuniqueandcreativesolutionstoaproblem.Designersneedtocollect valid and useful data from the target market and audience throughout the design cycle to ensure the specification includes certainessentialcomponents.

Targetmarkets
	
When determining the target market, market sectors and segments need to be identified.

Targetaudiences
	
It is important todifferentiatebetweenthetargetmarketandthetargetaudience.When determiningthetargetaudience,characteristicsoftheusersshouldbeestablished.

Howatargetaudienceisusedto establishthecharacteristicsof users
	
Who is most likely to buy this product given its benefits? How can the organization tap into the buying power of these consumers? Where is the target market most likely to find out about the product? Answering these questions helps you to position your productinthecorrectmarketinganddistributionchannels.

Marketanalysis
	
An appraisal of economic viability of the proposed design from a market perspective, taking into account fixed and variable costs and pricing, is important. It is typically a summaryaboutpotentialusersandthemarket.

Userneed
	
A marketing specification should identify the essential requirements that the product mustsatisfyinrelationtomarketanduserneed.

Competition
	
Athoroughanalysisofcompetingdesignsisrequiredtoestablishthemarketneed.
Every product you take to market, even ones that are new inventions or improvements on old products, face competition. This is because customers buy products for many different reasons. Some are interested in the innovation of new products, others care more about pricepointandclevermarketingschemes.Yourcompetitionwillcapitalizeon these buyer preferences and seek to edge out yourproductfromthemarket.Identifying the competition in your marketing specification helps the organization to clarify how it canedgeoutandrespondtothecompetition.

Researchmethods Athoroughanalysisofcompeting designsisrequiredtoestablish themarketneed.
	
Literaturesearch Usuallyperformedusingauthoritativesourcessuchas:academicjournals,books,theses, consumermagazines,governmentagencyandindustrypublications
Usertrial Atrialwheremembersofthecommunitywhowillusetheproductareobservedusing theproduct.Thisusuallyhappensinalabenvironmentandparticipantshavesettasksto performundercontrolledconditions.

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Userresearch Thequestioningofusersabouttheirexperienceusingaproduct.Usuallyasa questionnaireorfocusgroup.
Expertappraisal Whereanexpert(chosenonthebasisoftheirknowledgeorexperience)isaskedtogive theiropinion.
Performancetest
Wheretheproductistestedanddataiscollected-crashtestdummy

Designspecifications
	
All of the requirements, constraints and considerations must be specific, feasible and measurable.

A list of requirements,constraintsandconsiderationsthatayet-to-be-designed product must fulfil. The design specification must be developed from the design brief and researchandrequirementswouldinclude:

●	aestheticrequirements ●	costconstraints
●	customerrequirements
●	environmentalrequirements ●	sizeconstraints
●	safetyconsiderations
●	performancerequirementsandconstraints ●	materialsrequirements
●	manufacturingrequirements

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Topic6 ClassicDesign

6.1Characteristicsofclassicdesign

A classic design has a timeless quality, which is recognized and remains fashionable. A classic design is not simply defined by how well it functions or its impact. Classic designs can be recognized as from their design movement/era. Yet, originality, whetheritisevolutionaryorrevolutionary,seemstobethetraitthatmakesaproduct“timeless”.

DesignClassic
	
A product that serves as a standard of its time,thathasbeenmanufacturedindustrially and has timeless appeal. It serves as a standard of its time, despite the yearinwhichit was designed, is still up to date and remains relevant to future generations and in this way has a lasting impact on society.Thedesignresiststhevagariesoftasteandfashion andonceestablishedasa“classic”itgraduallyacquiresfurthervalue.

Design classics are iconic products and characterised by simplicity, balance, is stillupto date and usually innovative in their use of material. Often they unite technological advances with beautiful design, for example, Apple products such as the iPod, the Coca-Cola bottle and soft drink cans. Classic designs can emergefromanysectorofthe market.

To ensure sustained success over an extended period of time, design classics must not only address functional and aesthetic requirements but also an emotional connection withtheuser/owner. Examples:FenderTelecaster,EamesLoungechairandOttoman,Porsche911

Image
	
Within the context of classic design, image relates to the instantly recognizable aesthetics of a particular product. Forexample,theshapeof aCoca-Colabottle,ortheshapeofaVolkswagenBeetlemotorcar.

The classic design is instantly recognizable and provokes emotional reactions.

Often referred to as “iconic”, the longevity of classic designs suggests quality and the continued demand for such products is notdependenton heavy marketing or advertising, although this often takes place to reinforce the status and remind new generations of consumers of the intrinsic value of the classic design. The design is often widely imitated,
usually with cheaper versions, so this reinforces the statusoftheoriginaldesignandits “pioneering”concept.

Statusandculture
	
Classic design defies obsolescence and transcends its original function. Classic designs are often recognised across culture and hold iconic status The iconic status of classic design is often attributed to them being breakthrough products, products that set new standardsornewmeanings.

Status
	
Products considered as classic designs often increase in value and can project a certain status as they become more desirable. The ownership of a classic design can increase the perceived status of anindividual.

E.g.StatusofwearingaRolexWatch

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Culture
	
In the contextofclassicdesign,cultureplaysan important part. They often reflect cultural influences and mark transition points within a particular culture. The culture of concern may be national, religiousorasub-culture,suchasa particularyouthcultureormovement.

E.g.	British	culture:	red	letterbox,	red double-deckerbus,unionjackflagandcolours,

Obsolescence
	
A product that is obsolete is no longer producedorusedoroutofdate.Theroleofmass production has contributed to a product reaching classic design status. Some products are considered to be classic design based on the quality ofexecution,enduringqualities andrestraint.

This is the stage in a product life cycle where the product is no longer needed even though it functions as well as it did when first manufactured. Classic designs tend to transcend obsolescence and become desired objects long after they have ceased to be manufactured.

Plannedobsolescence
	
When a product is deliberatelydesignedtohaveaspecificproductcycle.Thisisusuallya shortened life span. The productisdesignedtolastlongenoughtodevelopacustomer’s lastingneed.

The product is also designed to convince the customer that the product is a quality product, even though it eventually needs replacing. In this way, when the product fails, the customer will want to buy another, a up to date version. Obsolescence can be determinedbyfashion,technology,materials,constructiontechniques.
The classic design may no longer be needed as a functional object or it may become technologically obsolete. However, it may still sell very small numbers although it may no longer be viable to produce itcommercially.Insuchcircumstancestheresalevalueof existing products increases enormously as the number of products available lessens over time. Such products become very collectable and have investment value, for example, classic cars. Otherproductsmaynotintrinsicallybeworthmuchmoneybutare valuable to certain owners or collectors, such as toys that have been used and are in poorcondition.

Massproduction
	
For many centuries prior to the Industrial Revolution, “classic” evoked thoughts of artistry and craft skills, for example, classical architecture and furniture. The advent of mass production and “designing for the masses” often meant a reduction in quality of products and poor design. However, once mass production techniques became more established some designers embraced the opportunities offered by the newtechniques and materials as a wayofprovidingpeoplewithwell-designedproductsatanaffordable price due to the cost-effectiveness of production. No longer was classic design the preserveoftheeliteinsociety.

Mass production involves the bulk manufacture of products that have little or no customisation. The setup costs for mass production are highbecauseitusuallyinvolves extensive mechanisation and automation. The total cost perunitislowerthoughasless labour is required andmaterialscanbesourcedinlargerquantitiesforless.Theconstant presenceofaproductinachangingcontextleadstoclassicdesignstatus

Example:VWBeetle21millionsold(1941-2003)

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Ubiquitous/ omnipresence
	
A classic design often has a constant presence, or omnipresence, in a rapidly changing context. When an object becomes part of our everyday lives, we become very familiar and comfortable with it’s presence and style. The product becomes part of our life and westarttoattachemotions,feelingsandexperiencestotheproduct.

The product becomes embedded in our life. Therefore the demand for the product continues even when new products with better function enter the market. This continued demand for the product when newer alternatives are available afford the productclassicdesignstatus.

Thismakesaclassicdesignsoftendominantinthemarketplaceanddifficulttochange.

Dominantdesign
	
The design contains those implicit features of aproductthatarerecognizedasessential byamajorityofmanufacturersandpurchasers.

When classic design is dominant in the market-place it can be difficult to change.Apart from the functional or particular feature that is so appealing to the user, emotional issues can impact. Users are often reluctant to change, theyarehappywiththeproduct andcannotseeanyadvantagein‘up-grading’orchangingtoalatermodel.

Users can become emotionally attached to the classic design, can cannot believe that any other product is better, or in fact simply do not want to change from their reliable, andcherishedpossession.

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6.2Classicdesign,functionandform

For a design to become a classic design, the form can transcend the function. Classic design holds “formfollowsfunction”asa fundamental principle, but this is not always evident in practice. Some products are so well designed with function as their primary goal, that their use is intuitive. As designers develop new technologies, the lines between the form and function of a productcontinuetoblur.

Form
	
Also considered as the three-dimensional space that a product takes up, in the context of classic design, formrelatestotheshapeofaproductandtheaestheticqualitiesthat theshapegives.

Function
	
Products can be considered classic designs based on how well they fulfil the task that theyhavebeendesignedfor.

Formversusfunction
	
This is the meaning that the result of design should derive directly from its purpose. Sometimes there is tension between form and function when developing newproducts based on a classic design. When considering form, it can also be dictated by other functions such as design for manufacture techniques, for example, design for disassembly.

BauhausSchool
	
The Bauhaus School (literally meaning ‘building house’ in German)wasfoundedin1919 byWalterGropiusinWeimar,thenthecapitalofpostWWIGermany.Inthiseraofchange anddisillusionment,themovementsoughttoembrace20thcenturymachinecultureina way that allowed basic necessities like buildings, furniture, and design, tobecompleted inautilitarianbuteffectiveway.
With their theory of form follows function, the school emphasized a strong understanding of basic design, especially theprinciplesofcomposition,colortheory,and craftsmanship,inawidearrayofdisciplines.

Retro-styling
	
Retro styling uses the form and decoration of classic designsfromaparticularperiodof time and/or style. Retro styling builds on theclassicimagebutcanofteninvolvetheuse of new technology. Retro-styling a new product needs to respect and understand the original form and underlying structure before making changes. Designers need to howeverberespectfuloftheoriginaldesigner's’intent.

Retro-design often mimic a product or past experience to evoke feelings of nostalgia. Modern retro products may also use an old format to meet a new demand. E.g. Sony XDR-S16DBPdigitalclockradio

For the Mini Cooper it was important to keep the car small, playful and cute. A whole generation had grown up with the original Mini, and it’s retro styled remake needed to capturethesameemotiontoappealtothisgenerationasecondtimearound.

Conflictandcompromise
	
Comparison of retro-styled products with the original production models in relation to formandfunction.

The balance between function and form is often a difficult area for the designer. If a product is purely functional, it may be lacking in appeal to consumers, no matter how good it is at completing its job. Often we are drawn to products that have been developed with form as the primary consideration. The human psyche appreciates beauty. The aesthetics of a product are embedded in its form- and often we can be drawn or attracted to it because of its inherent beauty- perhaps over-looking its functionalattributes.

The Starck designed Salif juicer, a classic design, has a high aesthetic value, its form is celebrated yet its function is poor. The MT49 teapot by Marianne Brandt is completely strippedofthedecorationpopularin1924-presentingasapurelyfunctionalproduct.

Practicalfunction
	
The practical function of an object or space is determined by therational-thelogicalor well reasoned approach to its design. Decisions by the designer or userwilldetermined bytheobjectsusabilityandreliability.

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Psychologicalfunction
	
The psychological function of an object or space is determined by the emotional responses. These are the 'needs and wants' driven by fads, fashion and technological trends. Decisions by the designer or the user will evoke psychological responses-personal identity, the narrative of ‘me’ and relate to the desirability of the object or space.

Practicalfunctionversus psychologicalfunction
	
Someproductshaveeitherpracticalfunctionorpsychologicalfunctionhasthe determiningfactorinthedesign.

When practical function forms thedesignersprimarygoaltheinteractionwiththeobject can become intuitive. Intuitive design will have a number of redeeming features: affordance, expectation, efficiency, responsiveness, responsiveness, forgiveness, explorability, emotional security. A product can transcend the its practical function to meeting the psychological needsoftheuserbyevokingemotions-aestheticallypleasing objects appear to the user to be more effective, byvirtueoftheirsensualappeal.Thisis due to the affinitytheuserfeelsforanobjectthatappealstothem,duetotheformation ofanemotionalconnectionwiththeobject.

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^Anglepoise1227Lamp
	
^Thonet'sNo14BistroChair

^PhilippeStarck'sJuicySalif CitrusJuicer
	
^Eamesottomanchair
	
^FenderTelecaster

^Mariannebrandtteapot
	
^MiniClassic
	
^SonyXDR-S16DBPdigitalclockradio

ExamplesofClassicDesignProducts

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HIGHERTopics7-10

Clickontopicbelowfordirectaccess

Topic7

7.1User-centreddesign(UCD)

7.3Strategiesforuserresearch

7.4StrategiesforUCD

7.5Beyondusability-designingforpleasure

andemotion

Topic8

8.1SustainableDevelopment

8.2Sustainableconsumption

8.3Sustainabledesign

8.4SustainableInnovation
	
Topic9

9.1CorporateStrategies

9.2MarketSectorsandSegments

9.3MarketingMix

9.4MarketingResearch

9.5Branding

Topic10

10.1JustinTime&JustinCase

10.2Leanproduction

10.3Computerintegratedmanufacturing(CIM)

10.4Qualitymanagement

10.5Economicviability

Updated25thMay2016-JohnZobrist

IB Design Technology HIGHER T7-10

Topic7

User-centreddesign(UCD)

7.1 User-centred design (UCD)

The fundamental principle of UCD is that understanding the needs of the users is the key to designing the best products and services. A designer must consider the needs, wants and limitationsoftheenduserwithineveryelementofthedesigncycle.The abilitytoidentifyhowuserswillinteractwithaproduct,serviceorsystemisvitalforitssuccess.Toachievethis,designersmustbe abletoacquireandanalysevaliddatawithoutmakingassumptionsabouthowtheproductmaybeused.

MainIdea	DescriptionandDesignContext

WhatisUCD?
	
The foundation of UCD is that good design requires that the needs and capabilities of the users are determinedandincorporatedintothedesignprocessfromthestartthroughtothe finish.
AdvantagesofUCD
-	UCDdesignistoputyourselfintheuser’sshoes. -	Thedesignwouldbemoreintuitive.
DisadvantagesofUCD
-	User-centricdesignisexpensive
-	Difficultytotranslatecertaintypesofdataintodesign -	Productstakesmoretime
-	 Item may be too complicated and specific for public use leading to becoming more expensive

The product must address the whole user experience. Design should make it easy for the userto:
●	determineactionspossibleatanytime ●	seetheoptionsandresultsofactions ●	determinecurrentsystemstate
●	followintuitivelyfromintentiontoaction

Thedesignerneedstohavea deepunderstandingofthe user,taskandthe environment.
	
User- the person utilising the product. The person who is being affected by the product or who is reaping the benefits or drawbacks of the product. A product can alter as well, dependingontheuser.
Task- the thing the product is supposed to do… The user may have multiple uses for the same product. For eg a water bottle- the bottlemaybedesignedforcarryingwateronly,but theusersmayuseitforotherliquidssuchasmilketc.
Environment- The place where the product is likely to be used- indoors/outdoors, urban/rural,onEarth/inspaceetc.

WhatisIterativeDesign?
	
Iterationistheactofrepeatingaprocesswiththeaimofapproachingadesiredgoal,targetor result. Regular feedback from user would assist in making small changes to the product/design. Each repetition of the process is also called an "iteration", and theresultsof oneiterationareusedasthestartingpointforthenextiteration.

Theprocessisiterative,led bytheuseranddeveloped throughuser-centred evaluation.
	
Theprocessisiterative,ledbytheuseranddevelopedthroughuser-centredevaluation.
The design is developed through user-centred evaluation. For example, ISO stated the six principlesthataniterativedesignshouldinclude:
1. Thedesignisbaseduponanexplicitunderstandingofusers,tasksandenvironments. 2. Usersareinvolvedthroughoutdesignanddevelopment.
3. Thedesignisdrivenandrefinedbyuser-centeredevaluation. 4. Theprocessisiterative.
5. Thedesignaddressesthewholeuserexperience.
6. Thedesignteamincludesmultidisciplinaryskillsandperspectives

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UCDdesignteamsare multidisciplinary. ThefivestagesofUCD: research,concept,design, implementation,launch Inclusivedesign
	
UCD	Design	teams	are multidisciplinary as only by incorporating          into          the development       process       the concerns and expertise of the user and production teams that manufacture,              distribute, maintain	and     market     the product could a good design emerge.     The     UCD	process therefore         represents         a fundamental change in the traditional designprocesswhere design weredevelopedlargelyin isolation.

UCD design teams may include anthropologists, ethnographers andpsychologists.

Research

Concept

Design

Implementation

Launch
	
●	BusinessandUserproblemsandrequirementsareanalysed. ●	Theuser,taskandenvironmentareconsidered
●	 Thiscanbedonewithamulti-disciplinaryteamsof ethnographer,anthropologistsandpsychologists
●	NBtheabovediagramforResearch

●	Initialideasareputforward
●	Conceptmodellingtakesplace,includingpapermodels ●	Allowsfor tactileandappearanceevaluations
●	Evaluationisfedbackintothedesigncycle ●	Itisquickandcheaptocarryout.
●	 Amulti-disciplinaryteamofdesigners,variousengineersand psychologists.
●	NBtheabovediagramforConcept

●	Developmentofideas
●     Scaledmodelssuchasprototypes,mockupsetcaremade ●     Monitoringofperformanceagainstusabilityrequirements
●	 Allowsformorecontinuedevaluationbytheuseranddesign team.
●	Evaluationisfedbackintothedesigncycle ●	NBtheabovediagramforDesign

●	 Varioustestingandevaluationsarecarriedoutwithawide rangeofendusers
○	Evaluationisfedbackintothedesigncycle
●	 Amulti-disciplinaryteamisusedtomeasuretheend-users psychologicalandphysiologicalexperience.
●	NBtheabovediagramforImplementation

●	Theendproductislaunched
●	Continuousevaluationiscarriedout
●	Monitoringofperformanceagainstusabilityrequirements ●	NBtheabovediagramforLaunch

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WhatisInclusivedesign?
	
-User-centreddesignhasafocusoninclusivedesign.
-Inclusive design requires designing universally accessible products for all users including thosewithphysical,sensory,perceptualandotherchallengesandimpairments.
-Products and services address the needs of the widest possible audience, irrespective of ageorability.
-It is important: The effects of rapidly ageing populations, and growing numbers of people withdisabilities,arehavingaprofoundeffectonnewproductandservicedevelopment.

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7.2Usability

Usability is about how easy it is to use a product or system. A design team should be “user” driven and frequent contact with potential users is essential. To understand how a product, service or system may be used,thedesignermustconsidertheprior knowledge and experience of the users, as well as their typical psychological responses. Evaluation methods that utilize appropriatetestingandtriallingstrategiesmustbeusedtodeterminetheseaspects.

MainIdea	DescriptionandDesignContext

WhataretheUsability objectives?
	
Usability is defined as "the extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achievespecifiedgoalswitheffectivenessandsatisfactioninaspecifiedcontextofuse". Theprimaryobjectivesofusabilityare:
●	Easeofuse
●	Efficiencyofuse
●	Unambiguousfeedback
●	Clarityofhumaninterface

Usabilityobjectivesincludeusefulness,effectiveness,learnability,attitude(likeability).

Usefulness
	
- product enables user to achieve their goals - the tasks that it was designed to carry out and/or wants needs of user. Once users have learned the design, how quickly can they performtasks?
●	Efficiently–fastandwithminimumeffort

Effectiveness
	
- quantitatively measured by speed of performance or errorrateandistiedtoapercentage ofusers.Usethedesigncompletelyandaccurately
●	Preventserrors
●	Usercanrecoveriferrorsoccur.

Learnability
	
- user's ability to operate the system to some defined level of competence after some predetermined period of training. Also, refers to ability for infrequent users to relearn the system.
●	Itistheeaseatwhichtheusercanlearntouseaproduct?
●	Theintuitivenesstouseaproduct,serviceorsystemdesign.
●	 How easy is it for users to accomplish tasks the first time they encounter the design?
●	Memorable–whentheuserreturnstheydonothavetore-learnhowtouseit

Attitude
	
- user's perceptions, feelings and opinions of the product, usually captured through both writtenandoralcommunication.
●	 Satisfaction or likability when the client uses or interacts with the product, serviceorsystemdesign.
●	Howpleasantisittousethedesign?

Whatarethebenefitsof Enhancedusabilityandan giveexamples?
	
Benefits of enhanced usability include product acceptance, user experience, productivity, usererror,trainingandsupport

Enhancedusabilityincreases:
-	 Product acceptance: The knowledge that a product or service paidforwillmeetup toitsdefinedspecifications.
-	 User experience: a person's perceptions and responses that result fromtheuseor anticipated use of a product, system or service, this can modify over time due to changingusagecircumstances.
-	 Productivity: Developing products and services with the user in mind can reduce timewastingordifficulttounderstandaspectsofaproduct.
-Enhancedusabilitydecreases:
-	 User error: With simpler interfaces and controls, user error is reduced or even eliminated.

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-	 Training and support: If a product has a more intuitive user interface, a more pleasant user experience and simpler controls, there is less need for training and supporttotheconsumerandso,reducedcostsinthesefields.

Characteristicsofgood user-productinterfacesand anexample?
	
Gooduser-interfacedesignexhibitsthefollowingfeatures: ●	lowusererrorrate
●	highlevelsofusersatisfaction
●	easytolearn-simpleuncomplicated,unclutteredinterfaces
●	 easy touse-intuitivedesign,controlsappearwhereanticipatedandactionsperform asexpected
●	 easy to remember functions and operations are performed over time with anease ofrepeatabilityandhighlevelofcompetenceretention.

Examplesofgooduser-productinterfacesforproductsinclude:
1. Simplicity and ease ofuse-Productswithintuitiveandeasilyaccessibleinterfaces are likely to be more popular with consumers (especially more affluent and older consumers).
2. Intuitive logic, organization and low memory burden- Easy to use intuitive interface design allows new operators to quickly become competent in the basic operations of a product. Poorlydesigned,lessintuitivelyorganizedinterfacesplace a high level of learning through trial and error. They also increase the memory burden placed on consumers who may use the product intermittently and be destinedtorepeatthelearningprocessover.
3. Visibility- Colour, symbols of controls should be visible and it should be obvious howtheywork.
4. Feedback- Feedback is the provision of information, for example, an audible tone to a user, as aresultofanaction.Thetoneonatelephonetouchpadortheclickofa key on a computer keyboard provides feedback to indicate that a key has been pressed.
5. Affordance, Affordance is the property of an object that indicates how it can be used. Buttons afford pushing, and knobs afford turning. On a door, handlesafford pulling,whereaspushplatesaffordpushing.
6. Mapping-Mappingrelatestothecorrespondencebetweenthelayout/spaceof buttonsofthecontrolsandtheirrequiredaction.
7. Constraints-Constraintslimitthewaythataproductcanbeused.Thedesignofa three-pinplugoraUSB(universalserialbus)deviceensuresthattheyareinserted thecorrectway.

Populationstereotypes
	
Populationstereotypesareresponsesthatarefoundtobewidespreadinauserpopulation.

Assumptions and associations are made by the population of a particular culture regarding how equipment and products operate. It is a concept relating to cultural expectations. Itis the manner in which most peopleinthepopulationexpectsomethingtobedone.Youmight thinkofitasyourintuitionoryourinnatefunctionalunderstandingofsomething.
It is important to consider the intended User Populationforanyproduct(orsystem)youare designing. It can be defined as the range of users for a particular product or system. these can be defined by age, gender, physical condition, socio-economic class etc. Expectations that are found to be widespread in a population are known as conventions or stereotypes. E.g.USAvs.Europewithswitchesinhousesandcars.

Example includes the direction of handles to open and close and also thewayswitchesare turnedonoroff.

Whataretheadvantagesand disadvantagesofusing populationstereotypesfor designersandusers
	
Disadvantages: Making use of population stereotypes in the design might sometimes be irrelevant. For example, when apersonwalksintoaroomandwanttoturnalightswitchon, the most common way for Americans is to turn it up, but in other countries, it is the opposite.
Advantages: For many controls, certain actions we do such as turning, sliding etc will produce the expectedresult. Manyuserscanoperateaproductwithouthavingtolearnhow tooperateit.

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7.3Strategiesforuserresearch

The designer needs to understand the reasons behind the behaviours, wants, and needs of the user. Designers should select research strategies based on the desired user experiences in the context of theproduct,serviceorsystem.Thepurposeofuser research is to identifyneedsthatrevealthecomplexitiesofpersonae.Real-lifescenariosthatsimulate“actual”userexperiences cangeneratenewfindings.

MainIdea	DescriptionandDesignContext

Userpopulation
	
●	Userpopulationsarearangeofusersforaparticularproductorsystem.
●	 ‘Population’ defined as the group expected to make use of an item, instrument, product or data.
●	 Products may be designed for a particular user population,howevertherearemanyproducts designedformultiplepopulation.

Classificationof users
	
●	Userscanbeclassifiedbyage,genderandphysicalcondition.
●	 Allow designed to gather detailed feedback to generate insights for design development to eachgroup.
●	Userscanalsobeclassifiedbyinterests,habits,nuances,emotionalresponses.

Theuseof personae
	
Personaeisaprofileoftheprimarytargetaudienceforaproduct.
●	 Personae is created for these following reasons: to discover the needs of the customer, improve the quality of products, understand the customer profoundly, and identify which customergroupsneedtobevalued.

Essential details for defining personae include name, age, photo, information about family and home life, work environment, computer proficiency and comfort level with using Web, attitudes,motivation forusingahigh-techproduct,information-seekinghabits,personalgoals

WhatisSecondary personae?
	
Secondary personae are those who are not the primary target audience for a product, but whose needs the product should meet. They are able to provide valuable alternative insights to the developmentofaproduct.

Whatis
Anti-personae?
	
Anti-personaearethoseforwhomtheproductisnotdesigned.

Whatisuser research?
	
User Research focus on understanding the users behaviourandneedsthroughobservations,analysis andfeedback.

HowareScenarios usedasastrategy?
	
Scenario is an imagined sequence of events in the daily life of a persona based on assumptions by researchersanddesigners.
●	Scenariosprovidephysicalandsocialcontextfordifferentpersonae ●	Scenariosarebasedonbest,worstandaveragecase.
●	Simulates“actual”userexperiencescangeneratenewfindings.

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UseCase
	
Use case is a set of possible sequences of interactions or event steps between a user andaproduct toachieveaparticularaction.

Notes:

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Advantages	Disadvantages

● Gainfirsthandknowledge ● Gainfirsthandexperience
● Obtaindetaileddataofpeopleand processes
● Itemphasizestheroleandrelevance ofsocialcontext.
	
● Datawillbeverynarrow
● emotionallytaxingasrelationship betweeninterviewerandclienthasto beestablished.

Advantages	Disadvantages

● greatestnumberofusersare accommodated
	
● maybesensitiveforextremegroupsto beinvolved

Advantages	Disadvantages

● Helptounveilusabilityissues
		
● Testedunderconditionsofuse

● Datacollectedmaybedifficultto
	
	analyse

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7.4StrategiesforUCD

Users have acentralroleinevaluatingwhethertheproductmeetstheirwantsandneeds.Fordesignerstosuccessfullyintegrate usability into the design process, they require a holistic understanding of how a product, service or system is used. Designers must identify user requirements through the use of careful observation and interviews. A clear strategy for UCD will improve acceptabilityandusability,reducingcostsandeffort,whilefulfillinguserrequirements.

MainIdea	DescriptionandDesignContext

WhatisFieldresearch?
	
An observation of customer's user experience first hand, done by the firm. Essential for researchtobeconductedintheuser'senvironment.
●	 Useful when redesigning the product, as producers can fix the designs current problem
●	Canseewhatauseractuallydoinopposetowhattheysaytheydo
●	 Downside is the cost of doing the field research, which is quite expensive to conduct

WhatareMethodof extremes?
	
Common way of defining the rangeofuserpopulation.Usingthismethod,sampleusersare selected to represent the extremes of the user population plus one or two intermediate values.
●	 Example, if you were choosing a door height, and pick the 95thpercentilevalue,in other words, you would design for the taller people, then you wouldn’t need to worry about the average height people, or the 5th percentile, because they would fitanyways.

HowareObservationusedas astrategy?
	
Observation: A collection of responses from users, as well a trail observation of users interactingwiththeproduct.
Essentially is a user trial where the intended client uses the product and the expert observes.Thiscanbeinthefield(naturalenvironment)orinalab(controlledenvironment)

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Advantages	Disadvantages

● Itis dynamic ● FacetoFace
● Bodylanguageandgesturescanbe observed
● Easilymeasurereactions
● Clarifyingquestionscanbeasked
	
● Expensiveasintervieweesareoften compensated
● Participantsmaynotwishtoshare sensitiveissues
● Smallsamplesizemaynotbetruly representativeofthewhole
● Moderatorbias

Advantages	Disadvantages

● Cheap
● Easytoadminister
● largenumbersofquestionnairescan beadministered
● senteasilytoawidelocal,national, globalregions
	
● Static
● poornumberofresponses
● maybeonlyinterestedpeoplefillout thesurveythusperhapsabias

Howareinterviewsandfocus groupsusedasastrategy?
	
A collection of responses from users, a trail of observation of users interacting with the product.

HowareQuestionnairesused asastrategy?
	
Themethodofobtaininguserresponses,throughquestionnairestosolicitinformation.
One of the market research strategy, and user data collection techniques (supermarket surveys,questionnairesandinterviews).UserresearchisclassedasPrimary

Whatisaffinitydiagramming andhowisitused?
	
Affinitydiagrammingisatoolusedtoorganiseideasandinformation. ●	A graphical tool
that identifies a general theme to collect	facts, opinions          and ideas.
●	 They express data and infromationin a common format by	creating clusters           and groups               of common information.
●	 It	represents a text based map which	shows
aspects of the product that has been/will be takenintoconsiderationinthedesign andmanufacturingoftheproduct,therebypresentingtheresults.

Advantages	Disadvantages

● Simple
● Costeffective
● Easytogetdatafromagroup ● buildsteamwork
	
● timeconsuming
● cangetquitelarge

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Naturalenvironments	Usabilitylaboratories

● Thepotentialclientisobservedusing theproduct,systemorservicewhere itisintendedtobeused
● Advantage:solicitdatafromrealand intendedcontexts
● Advantage:usabilityistestedinthe intendedenvironment
● Disadvantage:biasedopinionsfrom theobservers
● Disadvantage:mostlyquantitative dataiscollected.
	
● Thepotentialclientisobservedusing theproduct,systemorserviceina controlled.
● Advantage:controlledenvironment canensurethat product/service/systemisusedas intended.
● Advantage:Groupsof‘observers’can viewtheusabilityandamorewider viewofanalysis
● Advantage:labscanbesetupwith high-techsensorsandequipmentfor bettermonitoring.
● Disadvantage:canbecostlyas facilities/personnel mustbehired.
● Disadvantage:canbeintimidatingto knowpeoplearebehindone-way mirrors
	
IB Design Technology HIGHER T7-10

WhatisParticipatorydesign
	
Involving the user in the design process. The target market perform realistic tasks, by interactionwithpaperversionsofthefinalproduct.
An example of participatory design is when users representing the target market for a product perform realistic tasks by interacting with a paper version of the user-product interface manipulated by a person acting as a computer who does not explain how the interfaceworks.

Prototypetestingsessions
	
Making a testing product where all experiments are conducted before making the final product making all changes necessary that can be seen when the prototype is used. Example:

Usabilitytestingsessions
	
The testing of a product with potential users to find out how usable the product is. Usabilitytestingsessionsinwhichausergroupismonitoredwhiletheyaremadetotestthe product by another user group. Example: a user group who are using a microwave being monitored by another group evaluating how the first group is able to usethemicrowavein termsofspeedandefficiencyandunderstanding

Naturalenvironments
	
Natural environment, is the monitoring of the user interacting with the product in their homes,orplaceofworkorothernaturalproductenvironments.

TestingHouse
	
Typically a company that will test products on their site in a lab. Testing house has the environment setatthe'real'scenario.Forexample:itmightbe-10degreeswithsnowanda user has to put up a tent wearing the clothing he/she would be wearing in that 'real' scenario...but it's not on the north pole but inside a controlled environment and the whole test is filmed and timed. This can be carried out in different parts of the world which can provideculturallybiasedusabilityissues.

Usabilitylaboratories
	
Usability testing is carried outinanusabilitylaboratory,andthetestusersaremonitoredby anothergroupofobserversinadifferentroom. Example:Lab
For example: Usability laboratories is same but with no climate- put up same tent in standardroomanditisfilmedandtimed.It'snot-10degreesandwearingnormalclothing.

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CompareTestinghouses versususabilitylaboratories
	
Advantages:
●	 Usability labs provide the best environment for peopletoobserveandlisten,either throughone-waymirrorsorthroughvideocamerasfedtolargescreens.
●	 More people come to observe usability testingwhenit’sconductedinalab.Testing becomes more ofan“event”.Thenoveltyofit,thecomfortoftheobservationroom, the freefood,andthechancetogetoutoftheofficeareallpowerfultemptationsto get people to attend. It’s always helpful to get people from the project team involvedinobservingthetestingfirsthand.
●	 When more people come to observe testing, you can have debriefingsessionsand discussionsatvariouspointsduringtheday.
●	 Usability labs give you the most control over the testing equipment, the environment, and thesituation.Youcanensurethateachparticipant’sexperienceis the same. That’s important when you’re doing a test that relies primarily on collectingquantitativemetrics.
●	 Labs allow you to have the most high-tech setup, with eye tracking, mobile usabilitytestingequipment,multiplecameras,audiorecording,etc.
●	 Since the participants come to you, you don’t have to travel, and you can fit more sessionsineachday.

Disadvantages:
●	 A usability lab is a highly artificial environment. Taking people out of their normal contextandbringingthemintoalabdoesnotshowyoutheirnaturalbehavior.
●	 Usability labs with the one way mirror, the cameras, and the observers can be intimidating and make participants feel uncomfortable. This can affect their behavior. Knowing that the designers and project team are observing can lead to theeffectofparticipantstellingyouwhattheythinkyouwanttohear.
●	 It’s harder to get peopletoparticipateinausabilitytestwhentheyhavetocometo a lab. It’s easier to get them to participate when you can go to them or test them remotely.Thebestparticipantsareoftentheonesthatdon’thavetimetocometoa usability lab. Those who are able to come to a lab are sometimes less-than-desirable or, even worse, “professional” participants who supplement theirincomebyparticipatinginfocusgroupsandusabilitytests.
●	 Because people have to travel to the lab in person, your participants arelimitedto thoseintheimmediatearea.
●	 Usability labs are expensive. Lab space and equipment costalotofmoney,making usabilitytestingmoreexpensive.

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7.5Beyondusability-designingforpleasureandemotion

Usability is not the only factor for a designer to consider;productscanbedesignedtoevokepleasureandemotion.Adesigner’s ability to provide satisfaction through aesthetic appeal and pleasure can greatly influence the success of a product, service or system. Understanding attitudes, expectations and motivations of consumers plays a significant role in predicting product interaction. Designers need to be empathetic and sympathetictouseremotion,whichactsasacriticalcomponenttodetermine howheorsheinterpretsandinteractswithaproduct,serviceorsystem.

MainIdea	DescriptionandDesignContext

Attitude
	
The perceptions, feelings and opinions about a product by a user. We want to create products that peoplelove.Tomakeitapleasuretouse–reducecomplexity–it’susable!
People become ‘attached’ to a product,theyareengagedasauser/consumerintheproductwhichwill also develop brand loyalty (if a consumer is satisfied with the product, they’ll come back which obviouslyincreasesormaintainsalesforacompany)

Four-pleasure framework
	
The four pleasures (socio-pleasure, physio-pleasure, psycho-pleasure and ideo pleasure) are used whenproductsaredesignedtoevokepleasureandemotion.

Socio-Pleasure
	
Pleasure derived from being part ofagroup,i.e.gainingpleasurefrombeinginasocialgroupsuchasa memberofthe“PCGamingMasterRace”orbeinga“fan”of“Appleproducts”.
Otherexamplesinclude:
● Email,internetandmobilephonesthatfacilitatecommunicationbetweenpeople.
● Products may promote social interaction by being conversation starters, for example, jewelry, artworkorfurniture.
● Clothing can communicate social identity and indicate that a person belongs to aparticularsocial group.

Physiopleasure
	
Pleasurederivedfromtouching,smelling,hearingandtastingsomething.
Ex.- the way something opens or physically feels like. Common products that invoke this type of pleasureare-knives,boxes,thetextureofcertainsurfaces,thesmellofnewproductslikeacar. Otherexamplesinclude:
● wearingasilkgarmentorthesmoothfeelofaniPod/iPhone, ● tastesuchaseatingchocolate
● smellofleather,anewcar,coffeeorfreshlybakedbread

Psycho-Pleasure
	
Psychological pleasure is created when the person thinks about the situation, consciously or unconsciously. This can be created by intellectual games such as Sudoku or Scrabble that stimulate thinking and give the pleasure of 'winning'. The brain rewards itself with a shot of natural opiates whenitseespatternsandlearns,makingthisanotherpowerfulmotivationalapproach.
Otherexamplesinclude: Examplesinclude:
● it might be expected that a word processor that facilitated quick and easy accomplishment of tasks would provide a higher level of psycho-pleasure than one with which the userwaslikelyto make many errors. The former word processor should enable the usertocompletethetaskmore easilythanheorshewouldwiththelatter.

Ideo-Pleasure
	
Pertains to people's values, refers to pleasure derived from our ideals of life, aesthetics, culturally andothers. example:IKEAmugthathasagrooveatthebottomtoletthewaterdrainwhendrying. Otherexamplesinclude:
Examplesinclude:
● A product made from biodegradable materials might be seen as embodying the value of environmentalresponsibility.

Visceraldesign
	
Design that speaks to people's nature in terms how people expect things to workandhowthingsare expected to turn out and how different ways of things acting are generally interpreted. Making the designintuitive.

Behaviouraldesign
	
Is all about use and understanding how people will use a product, about functionality and is fundamentalpartofthedesignprocess.

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Reflectivedesign
	
Evokes personal remembrance, the message, the culture. example a watch being more than just a watch,ratherbeingafashionstatement.Awatchtellsmorethanjusttime.

DesignforEmotion
	
Design for Emotion will help your designs attract more attention and communicate your message morepowerfully,tomorepeople.
Designingforemotioncanincrease: ● Userengagement
● Productorbrand loyalty
● Satisfactionwithaproductbyincorporatingemotionandpersonality

Attractconverse transact (ACT)model
	
Aframeworkforcreatingdesignsthatintentionallytriggeremotionalresponses.

Attract
	
Howitlooks-Getsomeonetobuyaproductbecausetheyliketheaestheticsoftheproduct

Converse
	
How you interact- Converse is related to interaction andhowincreasedinteractionmakesagenerally betterproduct

Transact
	
How it works- It is to either carry outorconductabusinessforatransactrelatestofunctionandhow increasingthefunctionofaproductmakesaproductingeneralbetter

Empathetic
	
When the designer takes the place of the user to see who potentially could use the product and the object could be better suited for the consumer. Toempathizewithpotentialusersandsogainabetter understandingofusers’thoughts,needs,valuesandbeliefs.

Sympathetic
	
Thedecisionsrequiredfortheproducttobethemosthelpfulfortheusergivencertainconditions.

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Topic8 Sustainability

8.1SustainableDevelopment

Sustainable development is concerned with satisfying human needs for resources nowandinthefuturewithoutcompromising the carryingcapacityoftheplanet.Designersutilizedesignapproachesthatsupportsustainabledevelopmentacrossavarietyof contexts. A holistic andsystematicapproachisneededatallstagesofdesigndevelopmenttosatisfyallstakeholders.Inorderto develop sustainable products, designers must balance aesthetic, cost, social, cultural, energy, material, health and usability considerations. Triplebottomlinesustainabilitydoesnotonlyfocusontheprofitabilityofanorganizationorproduct,butalsothe environmental and social benefit it can bring. Organizations that embrace triple bottom line sustainability can make significant positiveeffectstothelivesofothersandtheenvironmentbychangingtheimpactoftheirbusinessactivities.

Triplebottomline sustainability:environmental, economicandsocial.
	
Historically therehasbeenaclosecorrelationbetweeneconomicgrowthandenvironmental degradation—as economic prosperity increases so environmental quality decreases. This trend is clearly demonstrated on graphs of human population numbers, economic growth and environmental indicators. Sustainable development frameworks enable the evaluation ofthecomplexandinterrelatedconceptsthatareassociatedwithdevelopment

There is a correlation between economic development and human well-being. Design involves problem-solving to develop products and services to enhance human well-being. The importance of sustainability issues and strategies is critical to sustainable economic development.
Economic development consumes resources, resulting in environmental impact. Designing for sustainability is dependent upon an understanding of the short- and long-term goals andvaluesofindividuals,institutionsandgovernments.

It is about the big picture that allows economic activity to rise while reducing resourceuse andreducingenvironmentalimpact.

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Decoupling Decoupling:disconnecting economicgrowthand environmentalimpactsothat onenolongerdependsonthe other
	
Decoupling refers to disconnecting two trends so that one no longerdependsontheother. Through the act of decoupling (using resources more productively and redesigning production systems), it is technically possible to deliver the same or equivalent goods and serviceswithlowerenvironmentalimpactwhilemaintainingsocialandequitybenefits.

KyotoProtocol Theuseofinternationaland nationallawstopromote sustainabledevelopment
	
An international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialised countries to reduce emissionsofgreenhousegases.Thetreatywasagreedin1997andcameintoforcein2005

EarthSummitinRiode Janeiro(1992) Theuseofinternationaland nationallawstopromote sustainabledevelopment
	
The UN sought to help Governments rethink economic development and find ways to halt the destruction of irreplaceable natural resources and pollution of the planet. The summit has produced results, making eco-efficiency a guiding principle for business and governmentsalik

Internationalandnational laws
	
Adopting a corporate strategy that has the support of shareholders/stakeholders can be difficult to achieve. International and national laws encourage companies to focus on aspects other than shareholder value and financial performance, which include transparency of corporate sustainability, transparent sustainability assurance and whether businesses, public services, national resources and the economy have the means to continueintheyearsaheadatamicroandmacrolevel.

Sustainabilityreporting
	
Asustainabilityreportisacompanyreportthatfocusesonfouraspectsofperformance. •Economic
•Environmental •Social •Governance
The reliability and acceptance ofsustainabilityreportingrequiresaccuratedatagatheringto be maintained over a lengthy period of time. Students need to be able to explain the benefitsofsustainabilityreportingforgovernments,manufacturersandconsumers.

Benefits for manufacturers: BuildstrustTransparencyaboutenvironmentalimpactcanhelp to reduce reputational risks, open up dialogue with stakeholders such as customers, communities and investors, and demonstrate leadership, openness and accountability. Helps to attract capital from green investors by identifying new markets and business opportunities.

A growing number of companies see sustainability reporting as a means to drive greater innovation through their businesses and products to create a competitive advantageinthe market.BetterreputationImprovesconsumerbrandloyalty.

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Meets the expectations of employees, improved morale. Increased efficiency In a 2012 global survey of sustainability reporters, 88% indicated that reporting helped make their organizations’decision-makingprocessesmoreefficient.

Benefits for consumers: Consumers want to know whether a company is performing in a globally responsible manner from an environmentalperspective(e.g.,wateruse,emissions, waste), and a social perspective (e.g., labor practices, human rights, corruption, customer healthandsafety).

Productstewardship
	
Product Stewardship is an environmental management strategy that means whoever designs, produces, sells, or uses a product takes full responsibility for minimizing the product’s environmental impact throughout all stages of the product’s life cycle,including end oflifemanagement(disposal).Designersmayneedtorespondtoconsumerpressureas more consumers become aware of resource issues and product labelling. Product stewardship requires all stakeholders involved in making, buying, selling or handling equipment to take responsibility for minimizing environmental, health andsafetyimpactat allstagesofthelifecycle.E.g.Bodyshop&LUSHandalsotheseexamplesbelow: •organicfoods
•geneticallymodifiedfood •greencotton •foreststewardship •bioplastics.

Manufacturers
In most cases, manufacturers have the greatest ability, and therefore the greatest responsibility, to reduce the environmental impacts of their products.Reducinguseoftoxic substances, designing for reuseandrecyclability,andcreatingtakebackprogramsarejusta few of the many opportunities for companies to become betterenvironmentalstewardsof their products. Forward-thinking businesses have recognized that demonstratedcorporate citizenship and maximum resource productivity are essential components to creating competitiveadvantageandincreasingshareholderwealth(triplebottomlinesustainability)

Retailers
As the sector with the closest ties to consumers, retailers are one of the gateways to product stewardship. From preferring product providers who offer greater environmental performance, to educating the consumer on how to choose environmentally preferable products, toenablingconsumerreturnofproductsforrecycling,retailersareanintegralpart oftheproductstewardshiprevolution.

Consumers Ultimately,itistheconsumerwhomakesthechoicebetweencompetingproductsandusing and disposing of products responsibly. Without consumer engagement in product stewardship, there is no “closing the loop.” Consumers must make responsible buying choices which consider environmental impacts. They must use products safely and efficiently. Finally, they must take the extra steps to recycle products that they no longer need.

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8.2Sustainableconsumption

Sustainable consumption focuses onreducingtheuseofresourcesofaproducttominimizeitsenvironmentalimpact.Designers develop products, services and systems that satisfy basic needs and improve quality of life. To meet sustainable consumption requirements, they must also minimize the use of natural resources, toxic materials and waste, and reduce emissions of pollutantsatallstagesofthelifecycle. Itisnotonlytheroleofdesignerstocreatemarketsforsustainableproducts.Consumers needtochangetheirhabitsandexpressawantandneedfortheseproducts.

Consumerattitudesand behaviourstowards sustainability
	
Advantages and disadvantages of consumer and environmental pressure groups for the user,manufactureranddesigner

Eco-warriors
	
Eco-warriors actively demonstrate on environmental issues. Eco-warriors protest anything that isdamagingtotheenvironment(suchasanimalcrueltyandpollution).Greenpeaceisan environmental organization that actively supports those protests and usually organize or join them. Examples of protests are members chaining themselves to trees and throwing redpaintonfurcoats.

Eco-champions
	
Eco-championschampionenvironmentalissueswithinorganizations.TheEcoChampionwill lead a Taskforce', a team of counselors from all parties,andthelocalcommunitytolistento ideas and work together to tackle these problems. The group will look into areas such as what we consume, what energy we produce and use up, how we get around and how we canreduceanddisposeofourwaste.

Eco-fans(adopts)
	
Eco-fans enthusiastically adopt environmentally friendly practices as consumers. An Eco-fan is someone who accepts all new technological advancements for green design on the current market. Aneco-fan willbuyalmostanythingthatisenvironmentallyfriendlyand will never buy a harmful product. Productsinclude,dolphinfriendlytuna,aerosolspraycans that do not contain CFC propellants, cosmetics that have not been tested on animals, productspackagedinenvironmentallyfriendlymaterials(reusable/recyclable).

Eco-phobes(resents)
	
Eco-phobes actively resent talk of environmental protection –Eco-phobes are people who are against helping the environment and purposely go against the ecological movements. They believe that the environmental problems are irrelevant to their lives, and some even believe that it is a scam. If you told an eco-phobe about environmental problems such as global warming, he would probably respond by saying "Is the earth warming? Oh, you betcha. Is Mars warming? Yup. Jupiter? Uh-huh. Will this freeze-thaw cycle continue happening into whatever “eternity” there may be? I’d have to say so." There are many theories that eco-phobes believe are true against helping the environment, but many of these theories are skeptical and are suspicious of many people. Some suggest that an example of aneco-phobeisGeorgeBush,whorefusedtosigntheKyotoagreementwhichis based on controlling the Co2 output in a country to a limit in order to decrease global warming.

Eco-labelling
	
Eco labeling means that a legal organisation grants a special label (eco label) to a product. Thislabelmeansthattheproductinquestionisveryenvironmentallyfriendly. Manyproductsnowarelabeledaccordingtohowenvironmentallyfriendlytheyare.
Such labeling schemes have come about as a result of legislation and consumer pressure. Theyenabletheconsumertocomparepotentialpurchasesandmakeaninformedchoice.

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AdvantagesofEcoLabelling	DisadvantagesofEcoLabelling

Forconsumers,they'reashortcuttodoing good:they'reaneasytouse,trustworthy guidetoproductsthathelpthe environmentinsomeway.

Second,formanufacturers,ecolabels offerapotentialpointofdifferenceanda competitiveadvantage.Manyconsumers takeenvironmentalperformanceinto accountsoifaproductlooksecofriendly anddoesn'tcostmuchmore,it'smore likelytobeliftedofftheshelf.For manufacturers,makingecofriendly productscanmakecommercialsense.

Third,labelsencourageageneralraisingof environmentalperformance,evenamong productsthataren'tlabeled.Accordingto theInternationalStandardsOrganization (ISO),thebodythatguaranteesworldwide uniformityinthewaywemeasurethings, theobjectiveofecolabelsis:"...through communicationofverifiableandaccurate information,thatisnotmisleading,on environmentalaspectsofproductsand services,toencouragethedemandforand supplyofthoseproductsandservicesthat causelessstressontheenvironment, therebystimulatingthepotentialfor marketdrivencontinuousenvironmental improvement."Insimplerwords,if environmentallyfriendlyproductssell better,allmanufacturershaveanincentive toproducethem—andstandardsrise overall.
	
Thebiggestproblemwithagrowing interestinethicalshoppingisthat manufacturersmaybetemptedtomake exaggeratedormisleadingclaims,which confuseconsumersintothinkingproducts arebetterthantheyreallyare.Insteadof raisingstandards,theresultisconfusion amongconsumersandasystematic underminingofallecofriendlyproducts (includinggenuineones).This,ofcourse,is exactlytheproblemthatproperlycertified ecolabelsaredesignedtosolve.Forthe systemtowork,ecolabelsneedtobe trustworthy,trusted,simpleto understand,andeasytorecognize.

		

Energylabellingschemes
	
WeneedtoconsiderhowEnergylabelingisdifferentindifferentcountries.

Europeanunion
If a company manufactures or sells household electrical equipment within the European Union, it must provide customers with the energyefficiencyratingofyourproductsby having a clear labeling ontheproduct.Asaconsumer,ifyouare buying a household electrical item the energy efficiency rating should be displayed clearly on the product to help you make a betterinformeddecision.

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Australia
The Good Environmental Choice Label is the onlyenvironmental labelling program in Australia whichindicatestheenvironmental performance of a product during its completelifecycle.Thelabel is awarded to products that meet voluntary environmental performance standards which have been created and assessed in	comparison	to	international	environmental	labelling standards.

Creatingamarketfor sustainableproducts:
	
Many shoppers want green products, but retailers and brand marketers are losing green salesatseveralkeypointsalongthepathtoapurchase. Thelargestopportunitiestocaptureshoppersinterestedingreenproductsinvolve;
•     buildingawareness, •     educatingshoppers,
•	makinggreenproductseasiertofindandrecognize, •	enhancingin-storecommunicationsand
•	inspiringshoppersatthestoreshelf.

As consumers increasingly demand green products, there is an incentive for marketers to offer them. It is important for firms tounderstandwhenconsumerschoosetheseproducts, and how to market them effectively. Ultimately it is the consumers choice as to which productstheywillbuy(oftenbasedonpricealone).Itisimportantto; Createamarketforsustainableproductsthrough;
•	pricingconsiderations
•	stimulatingdemandforgreenproducts •	productionofgreenproducts

Pricingconsiderations
	
Green products that are more expensive than ‘grey’ products are not often purchased(cost canbedecreasedasmorecompaniesstartusingtriplebottomlinesustainability).

Stimulatingdemandforgreen products,
	
•	 Businesses could involve academics, pressure groups and the media to highlight current environmental crisis.This raises awareness to reduce overall consumption of environmentallydamagingproducts.
•	 Engage in open dialogue with the public, consumers and government to rethink how societyviewsconsumption.
•	 Dialogue can encourage consumers to think about how lifestyle choices impact the environment, recognize sustainability implications of consumptionandreducereliance onproducts.
•	 Pay attention to market niches and demand to decide which green products to promote.For example, consumers have become increasingly concerned with buying organicfoodwhichhascreatedalargemarketnicheforsupermarkets.
•	 Market green products as a way to build a responsible identity and lifestyle.For example, firmscanencouragebeingagoodmotherbybuyingnatural,organicfoodsfor yourchildren'shealth.
•	 Consumers buy products as a way to fulfill needs like self-identity and social relationships.Firms that market green products as a way to help "save the planet" or improvehealthoflovedonesencourageconsumerstofulfilltheseneeds.

Productionofgreenproducts.
	
A green plastic product might meanthecompanymakingtheproductcanrecycletheplastic (ifitiseverreturnedorgathered).

A sustainableproductwouldnotusetraditionalplastic(madefromnonrenewableresources (oil)) but would use a bio-plastic made from plants or mushrooms that is made locally (reducedtransportationneed)infactoriesthatusesolarpowerforenergy

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Pressuregroups
	
Howconsumerandenvironmentalpressuregroupscanattractwidespreadsupport.
How pressure groups exert influence for changes on these issues and support using the media (including social media). Pressure groups use a range of 'direct' and 'indirect' actions topromoteenvironmentallysustainablepolicy.

DirectAction
Direct action entails physically attempting to hinder an activity that is seen as wrong, or gaining promotion through spectacular actions that aim to draw attention to environmentallydamagingactivity.
Direct actions have in the past included the attempt by Greenpeace to scupper French nuclear testing in the south pacific by blockading the ship with their own vessel, 'The Rainbow Warrior', in 1985. This action resulted in an aggressive attack by French Special forces using mines. The ensuing explosions injured several crewmembers, one of which drowned to death. Following inquiries, the French foreign minister was disgraced and two French soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter.Followingthis,Frenchnuclearbombings were halted aid public outrage and the rallying of private yachts in New Zealand, which furtherhamperedFrenchplans.
It must be noted that direct action need not be dangerous or aggressive, although Greenpeacehaveattimesbeencriticisedforendangeringactivists.

IndirectAction
The overwhelming majority of pressure group action is 'indirect', involving the promotionof issuesthrougheducation,debateandcalculatedlobbying.
The Friends of the Earth have launched a campaign called 'The Big Ask', encouraging the public to directly lobbytheirlocalM.P'sondifficultenvironmentalissues,eitherinperson,or throughletterwriting.
It must be noted that indirect action is usually behind successful direct action,whilstdirect actionaddsimpetustoindirectaction.

Lifestyleandethical consumerism
	
Consider strategies for managing western consumption while raising the standard of living of the developing world without increasing resource use and environmental impact. Also how consumers have become increasingly aware of information provided by pressure groupsandasmarketshaveglobalized,sohasconsumerpower.
Consumers might have been informed of theenvironmentalfactorsofvariousproductsand become more conscious does not always translate into purchasing of sustainable alternativesduetosomeexamplessuchas:

Lifestyleconsumerism:
-apreferredcriteriaofbrandduetorecognition/reputation -theavailabilityofproduct
-thepriceofproductratherthaneco-labelorenergylabel
-the purchase of the product with the higherefficiencymayinfluencetheconsumerbycost saving over the life/durability/impact on ecosystem/reduction ingreenhousegasemissions oftheproduct
-habit -trust
-consumerlifestyle -productorigin
-companyreputation

Ethicalconsumerism:
Being an ethical consumer means buying products which were ethically produced and/or which are not harmful to the environment and society. E.g. Fairtrade coffee or buying free-range eggs or as complex as boycotting goods produced by child labour and watching your food miles: how muchenergywasusedgettingtheproducttoyou?Productswhichfall into the ethical category include organic produce, fair trade goods, energy-efficient light bulbs, electricity from renewable energy, recycled paper and wood products with Forest StewardshipCouncilapproval.

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Takebacklegislation
	
Take back legislationputstheimpetusonmanufacturerstodealwiththeproductorwaste at the end of it’s lifecycle. This can mean providing opportunities for recycling and collection, providing information to the consumeraboutdisposalordirectlydealingwiththe obsoleteproduct.

Implicationsoftake-back legislationfordesigners, manufacturersand consumers.
	
Take back legislation is the legislation that holds manufacturers responsible for the environmentallysaferecyclingordisposaloftheirend-of-lifeproducts.
They are expected to provide a financial and/or physical plan to ensure that such products are collected and processed. Take back legislation comesinmanydifferentpolicyforms.For instance some legislation asks consumers to work with manufacturers to return products themselvesforrecycling.

Implicationsoftake-backlegislationformanufacturersanddesigners.
•	 Once companies have to take products back, they become immediately interested in design for disassembly and recyclability because they are the ones doing the disassemblingandrecycling
•	 Manufacturers and designershavetomakedesignchangesthatreducewaste,suchas improving product recyclability and reusability, reducing material usage, and downsizingproducts.
•	 For instance, if a product has to be taken back and recycled by the manufacturers, it would be most advantageous for them to ensure the original design can be readily disassembled.
•	 Special care has to be taken with the choiceofmaterials,costs,partsinordertomake iteasierformanufacturerstocollectandrecycleproducts.
•	 Some European countries have laws where stores must accept used packaging (from their store) on the spot.Customersloveitbecausetrashcollectionbillsareveryhighin Europe and if you can leave your waste packaging at the store, you save money. The result? Increased customer satisfaction and an immediate reduction in product packaging

Implicationsoftake-backlegislationforconsumers
•	 If the cost of recycling a product is included in its price consumers can make more informeddecisionsaboutbuying
•	 Some European countries have laws where stores must accept used packaging (from their store) on the spot.Customersloveitbecausetrashcollectionbillsareveryhighin Europe and if you can leave your waste packaging at the store, you save money. The result? Increased customer satisfaction and an immediate reduction in product packaging

Consider strategies for managing western consumption while raising the standard of living ofthedevelopingworldwithoutincreasingresourceuseandenvironmentalimpact.
In industrialized countries, the consumption patterns of cities are severely stressing the global ecosystem while settlements in the developing world need more raw material, energy,andeconomicdevelopmentsimplytoovercomebasiceconomicandsocialproblems.

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GreenDesign	SustainableDesign

Productsthathavelittleornoeffectonthe environment.
	
DealswithTBLsustainability,economic, environmental&Social

Cradletothegraveapproach
	
Cradletocradleapproach

Shorter(thansustainabledesign) thereforeeasierandcheapertoaddress environmentalconcernsinproducts.
	
Longertimescalewhichcanaffectthe R&Dstage(systemwideresearch needed)ofthedesignprocessincreases coststhereforemaynotbefeasible.

Incrementalideageneratingtechniques arefeasibleaspossiblyonlysmallchanges needtobemade.
	
Ideageneratingtechniquesaremore radicaltore-think(over-haul/redesign)the natureoftheproductandhowitworks
	
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8.3Sustainabledesign

Sustainable design is a philosophy of developing products in line with social, economic, and ecological sustainability principles. The first step to sustainable design is to consider a product, service or system in relation to eco-design and analyseitsimpact using life cycle analysis. The designer then develops these to minimize environmental impacts identified from this analysis. Considering sustainability fromthebeginningoftheprocessisessential.Datschefski’sfiveprinciplesofsustainabledesignequip the designer with a tool not only to design new products, but also to evaluate an existing product. This canleadtonewdesign opportunitiesandincreasethelevelatwhichaproductalignswiththeseprinciples.

Greendesign versussustainabledesign
	
Greendesignbeganwhenconsumersstartedtodemandeco-friendly productsasaresultof concerns over damage to our environment. Green design refers to the development of productstohaveareducedimpactontheenvironment.
Sustainable design is based on the growingrealizationthatwhatwehavedonesofarisnot enough. Sustainable products provide social and economic benefits while protecting public health, welfare and the environment throughout their life cycle—from the extraction of rawmaterialstofinaldisposal.

Datschefski’sfiveprinciples ofsustainabledesign:
	
'Thetotalbeautyofsustainableproducts'

IsthenameofabookbyphilosopheranddesignguruEdwinDatschefski. Inithedescribesfivesimpletestsforsustainability-cyclic,solar,safe,efficient,social

There are five design requirements for sustainable products. The first three mimick the protocolsusedbyplantandanimalecosystems:

•	 Cyclic:The product is made from organic materials, and is recyclable or compostable, or is made from mineralsthatarecontinuouslycycledinaclosedloop.Theideahereis that there should be no such thing as waste. All by-products should be the 'food' for something else, just like photosynthesis. Metals can be recycled again and again. Something that really has to be thrown away might be burned to release the energy 'locked up' init.Biodegradablematerialscanbecompostedtoprovidenutrientsforthe soil.Inthiswaycarbonandnitrogencanrerecycled.

•	 Solar:Theproductusessolarenergyorotherformsofrenewableenergythatarecyclic and safe, both during use and manufacture. The sun can give us energy directly through photovoltaic cells, and through using other types of solar panels. But wave and wind power are also the product of the sun's energy. Hydro-electricity is made possible by rain falling: again this is powered by the sun. Biomass can be converted into energy. The sun makes plants grow, and we eat the plants (or animals that have eaten the plants). Thus, our energy comes indirectly from the sun. Also we can burn biomasstogenerateheatenergy.

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•	 Safe:The product is non-toxic in use and disposal, and its manufacture does not involve toxic releases or the disruption of ecosystems. Are all releases to air, water, land or space the 'food' for other systems? A safe product orprocessisonethatdoes not harm other people or life, physically or chemically.Youneedtoconsiderthewhole life cycle of the product - the raw materials, extraction and manufacturingprocesses, the transport involved, the impact of distribution, sale, use(andmisuse!)andultimate 'disposal' of the product. A totally safe product generates nothing harmful, nor any waste, at any stage. We need also to think of the social impact of the product or process-seepoint5below.

The fourth requirement is based on the need to maximise the utility ofresourcesinafinite world:

•	 Efficient:The product's efficiency in manufacture and use is improved by a factor of ten, requiring 90% less materials,energyandwaterthanproductsprovidingequivalent utility did in 1990. Every product requires energy, materials and water for its productionanduse.Cananequivalentorbetterproductbeproducedwithless?

We need to reduce our use of energy, materials and water by up to 90%. In the long term, is the product economic to make? Ordoesitcreateproblemsthatsomeoneelse willhavetopayforinthefuture?

And the fifth recognises that all companies have an impact on the people who work for themandthecommunitieswithinwhichtheyoperate:

•	 Social:The productanditscomponentsandrawmaterialsaremanufacturedunderfair andjustoperatingconditionsfortheworkersinvolvedandthelocalcommunities.Does theproductmanufactureandusesupportbasichumanrightsandnaturaljustice?

Are the working conditions safe and compatible with human dignity? Are people paid properly at all stages of the supply chain? Does the product reinforce equality of opportunity? Does it enhance cultural diversity? Does it encourage participation in society?

"History should be our guide. The United States led the world’s economies in the 20th century because we ledtheworldininnovation. Today,thecompetitioniskeener;thechallengeistougher; and that iswhyinnovationismoreimportantthanever.Itisthekeytogood,newjobsforthe21st century. That’s how we will ensure a high quality of life for this generation and future generations.."
PRESIDENTBARACKOBAMA,AUGUST5,2009

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8.4SustainableInnovation

Sustainable innovation facilitates the diffusion of sustainable products and solutions into the marketplace. Sustainable innovation yields both bottom line and top line returns as developing products, services and systems that are environmentally friendly lowers coststhroughreducingtheresourcesrequired.Designersshouldviewcompliancewithgovernmentlegislationas an opportunity for sustainable innovation. Asenergysecuritybecomesanevermoreimportantissueforallcountries,designers, engineers and inventors need to develop new ways of efficiently generating energy. As new energy production technologies becomeavailable,designersneedtoharnessthemtobeusedinnewproductstoimprovetheirenergyefficiency.

Complexityandtimescaleof sustainableinnovation
	
Sustainable innovation relies on cooperation between different stakeholders such as government and manufacturing. It is the broadest approach going beyond technical solutions. This approach is based on a socio-technical systemsinterventionratherthanjust consideringproductimprovement.
The huge timescale means that sustainability is difficult to maintainasconditions/criteria canchangesignificantly,forexample,alengthyperiodofeconomicdownturn.
●	Thisisoftendifficultasbothpartieshavedifferingviews.
●	 Sustainable innovation requires a radical change which is time-consuming and expensivesomanufacturersarenotsowillingtoconsidersustainableinnovation.
●	 Sustainable innovation is a hugely complex concept that requires a long time for implementation,typically20–40yearsdependingonthenatureoftheinnovation.

SustainableTop-down strategies
	
At its most basic, this is the breaking down of a system into component parts. From a corporate strategy perspective, a top-down strategy means that the leadership level will determine the goals and how each department and/or individual employees will contribute to meet those goals. When considering sustainable innovation, designers are usually more comfortable with top-down strategies as it means investment and resources are more predictableandreliable.
●	Top-downiscontrolledbygovernment.E.g.banplasticbagsinshopsinSingapore. ●	Managementofresources,finances(controllingbankrates,etc)andsoon.
●	Itprovidestargetsandmeasuresforsustainability.

SustainableBottom-up strategies
	
At its most basic, this is the piecing togetherofcomponentsorsystemsinordertogiverise to a more complex system or product. From a corporate strategy perspective, a bottom up strategy methodology means that the leadership level will determine the overall goals, but theworkforcewillassistindevelopingthemechanismsandideastomeetthatgoal.
●	 Strategies implemented from the ‘bottom’ such as regional or local (city or town) level.E.g.TheseincludelocalinitiativeslikePlantingTreeCampaigns
●	 Designers are involved with bottom-up strategies are usually enthusiasts for the project and willing to make acommitmenteventhoughitmaynotbecost-effective to do so. Students are expected to be able to identify examples of bottom-up strategiesandevaluatetheadvantagesanddisadvantagesforconsumers/users.
●	 A potential problem for designers is the changing political scene and associated policies,forexample,withinthedomainofrenewableenergy.

Governmentinterventionin innovation
	
There are various strategies that governments use to promote knowledge exchange and technologytransfer.Governmentinterventionincludes:
1. regulation—settingandpolicingrulestoavoidorlimitenvironmentalissuescaused byundesirabletechnologies
2. education—providing consumers with information and guidance in the choice of productsandservicesthataremoresustainable
3. taxes—to penalize environmentally damaging technologies and influence consumerchoiceofsustainableproductsandservices
4. subsidies—tostimulateandsupportsustainableinnovations.

Macroenergysustainability
	
Macro energy sustainability can be influenced through international treaties and energy policies, instruments for change and disincentives, and national systems changing policy when government leadership changes. Macro-sustainability is the area of sustainable development that focuses on how a nation, region or the entire world would establish largescalebehaviorsforsustainability

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AdvantagesofSmartGrid	DisadvantagesofSmartGrid

-Mostlyelectromechanical -One-waycommunication
-Mostlycentralisedgeneration -Sensorsarenotwidelyused
-Lackofmonitoring:manual -Failuresandblackouts
-Lackofcontrol
-Lessenergy-efficient
-Usuallynotpossibletointegratewith renewableenergy
-Customershavelessscopetomodify uses
	
-Digitalinnature
-Two-waycommunication -Distributedgeneration
-Sensorsarewidelyused -Digitalself-monitoring -Adaptiveandintelligent
-Robustcontroltechnology -Energyefficient
-Possibleintegratelargescalerenewable energy
-Customerscancheckusesandmodify
	
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E.g. the Kyoto Treaty would fall into this category. Kyoto Protocol on the reductionofgreen house gases. In order for it to be successful all governments need to agree, for a while AustraliaandUSAdidnotsomanycountriesfollowedsuit

Macroenergysustainability Howmacroenergysustainabilitycanbeinfluencedthrough:
●      internationaltreatiesandenergypolicies ●      instrumentsforchangeanddisincentives
●	nationalsystemschangingpolicywhengovernmentleadershipchanges

Microenergysustainability
	
Micro energy sustainability can be influenced by the role of the government in raising awareness and changing attitudes, and promotion of individual and business action towardsenergysustainability.Microenergysustainabilitycanbeinfluencedby:
●	thegovernmentraisingawarenessandchangingattitudes
●	promotionofindividualandbusinessactiontowardsenergysustainability ●	E.g.LocalgovernmentsinstallingCombinedHeatandPower(CHP)

Energysecurity(energy demand)
	
Energy demand is rarely constant and this puts a responsibility on those thatgenerateand manage the flow of energy tounderstandwhenpeaksandtroughsofenergyuseoccurover thecourseofdays,weeksandyears.Forexample:
●	 In many countries, energy demand increases substantially during breaks and following popular TV shows as large numbers ofpeopleputthekettleontoenjoya hotbeverage.
●	 Also, there may be particular periods during the night where energy use is at a minimum. In these situations it is vital that the power-generating stations are informedwhentostartandstopenergygeneration.
●	 The difficulty arises as massive amounts of electricity cannot easily be stored, excessenergygeneratedatthesetimesiswasted.
●	 Demand/supply trends need to be predicted carefully to create a responsive and efficientenergysupply.

SmartGrids
	
A modernised electrical grid that uses analogue or digital information and communications technology to gather and act on information (such as behaviours of suppliers and consumers) in an automated fashion to improve the efficiency, reliability, economics and sustainability of the production and distribution of electricity. They can be national or international. International grids allow electricity generated in one country to be used in another.

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Topic9 Innovation&Markets/CorporateStrategies

9.1CorporateStrategies

Companies and businessescanutilizearangeofdifferentstrategiestodevelopproducts,servicesandsystems.Thesuccessofa company relies heavily on the strategies it adopts. The evaluation ofproducts,servicesandsystemscaninformtheselectionof themostappropriatestrategiestofollowthatwillenableacompanytoachieveitsobjectives.

Pioneeringstrategy
	
Being the first to market with a new innovation. Pioneering means being ahead of the competitorsbyintroducinganewproductfirst.Thisstrategyhasthepotentialforhighprofit iftheproductissuccessful JamesDysonCycloneVacuumCleaner,JamesDysonBladelessFan, Legobricks,Teslahybridcar

Imitativestrategy
	
Developing products that aresimilartoanexistingnewproduct.Theimitativestrategyaims to develop a product similar to the 'pioneered' product as quickly as possible. It takes advantage of all the R&D invested by others. Developing Products that are similar to an existingnewproduct.
Examples:LegoandMegabloks DuallitToaster,GoProCameraandyicameraandsonycamera

TheAnsoffMatrix (notintheguidebutaids understandingofthe frameworkformarketing)
	
The Ansoff Matrix also known as the Ansoff product and market growth matrix is a marketing planningtoolwhichusuallyaidsabusinessindeterminingitsproductandmarket growth. This is usually determined by focusingonwhethertheproductsareneworexisting andwhetherthemarketisneworexisting.

The model was invented by H. Igor Ansoff. Ansoff was primarily a mathematician with an expert insight into business management. It is believed that the concept of strategic managementiswidelyattributedtothegreatman.

The Ansoff Matrix has four alternatives of marketing strategies; Market Penetration, productdevelopment,marketdevelopmentanddiversification.

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Marketdevelopment
	
Finding new applications for existing products,therebyopeningupnewmarkets.Increasing salestoexistingcustomersorfindingnewcustomersforanexistingproduct.
Examples:

This marketing strategy may also be known as Market Extension. In this strategy, the business sells its existing products to new markets. This can be made possible through further market segmentation to aid in identifying a new clientele base. This strategy assumes that the existing markets have been fully exploited thus the need to ventureinto new markets. There are various approaches to this strategy, which include: New geographical markets, new distribution channels, new product packaging, and different pricing policies. In New geographical markets, the business can expound by exporting their products to other new countries. It would also mean setting up other branches of the business in other areas that the business had not ventured yet. Various businesses have adoptedthefranchisemethodasawayofsettingupotherbranchesinnewmarkets.

A good example is Guinness. This beer hadoriginallybeenmadetobesoldincountriesthat have a colder climate, but now it isalsobeingsoldinAfricancountries.Theothermethodis via new distribution channels.Thiswouldentailsellingtheproductsviae-commerceormail order. Selling through e-commerce will capture a larger clientele base since we are in a digitalerawheremostpeopleaccesstheinternetoften.InNewProductpackaging,itmeans repacking the product in another method or dimension. That way it may attract adifferent customer base. In Different pricing policies, the business could change its prices so as to attract a different customer base orsocreateanewmarketsegment.MarketDevelopment is a farmuchriskystrategyascomparedtoMarketPenetration.Thisissoasitistargetinga newmarketandonemaynotquittellhowtheoutcomemaybe.

Productdevelopment
	
The creation of new, modified or updated products aimed mainly at a company’s existing customers. Examples:VictorinoxSwissArmyKnife,Iphone5toIphone6,Swatchwatch,GoPro

In product development growth strategy, new products are introduced into existing markets. Product development can differ from the introduction of a new product in an existing market or it can involve the modification of an existing product. By modifying the product one would probably change its outlook or presentation, increase the products performance or quality. By doing so, it can appeal more to the already existing market. A good example is car manufacturers who offer a range of car parts so as to target the car ownersinpurchasingareplicaofthemodels,clothingandpens.

Marketpenetration
	
Increasing sales to existing customers or finding new customers for an existing product. Market penetration is a tool used to determine the potential growth available for product sales.
Calculation:productsales/totalmarketpotential

When we look at market penetration, it usually covers productsthatareexistenceandthat are also existent in an existing market. In this strategy, there can be furtherexploitationof the products without necessarily changing the product or the outlook of the product. This will be possible through the use of promotional methods, putting various pricing policies thatmayattractmoreclientele,oronecanmakethedistributionmoreextensive.

In Market Penetration, the risk involved in itsmarketingstrategiesisusuallytheleastsince the products are already familiar to the consumers and so is the established market. Another way in which market penetration can be increased is by coming up with various initiatives that will encourage increased usage of the product. A goodexampleistheusage of toothpaste. Research has shown that the toothbrush head influences the amount of toothpaste that one will use. Thus if the head of the toothbrush is bigger it will meanthat more toothpaste will be used thus promoting the usage of the toothpaste and eventually leadingtomorepurchaseofthetoothpaste.

When you develop the products in a way new market segments can be targeted. Thus increasing sales to the existing users/ clients or increasing the number of users targeted.

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This strategy involves changing with the pricing or the quality ofthegood.Canalsoinvolve changingthequantitysuppliedperunit,changingthepriceofthegood.(egOreosinChina) Victorinox-knives,bags,watches,wallets,etc. Iphone6+:WascreatedfortheAsianMarketastheywantedlargerscreens.

Productdiversification
	
The process of settinguniformcharacteristicsforaparticularproduct,system or serviceto help increasing sales. It involves the modification of an existing product so that its market potential can increase. Example iPhone(small and large size) or involves a companybothin the development of new products and in selling these products to new companies. It is when firms offer differentproductsinordertoincreasesales:sellingtopreviousconsumers as well as selling to new customers. Nestle→ Diversifying to making cornflakes, Milo, Hot Chocolate,Chocolateetc
Victorinox: Originally produced knives, now produce wallets, key holders and other accessories.
Apple:Laptop,iPod,etcProductfamily,Swatch-Swatchcar Lego:Technik,NXT,Duplo,Wedo

The last strategy is Diversification. Thisgrowthstrategyinvolvesanorganizationmarketing or selling new products to new markets at the same time. It is the most risky strategy among the others as it involves two unknowns, new products being created and the business does not know the development problems that mayoccurintheprocess.Thereis also the fact that there is a new market being targeted, which will bring the problem of having unknown characteristics. For abusinesstotakeastepintodiversification,theyneed to have their facts rightregardingwhatitexpectstogainfromthestrategyandhaveaclear assessmentoftherisksinvolved.

There are two types of diversification. There is related diversification and unrelated diversification. In related diversification, this means that the business remains in thesame industry in whichitisfamiliarwith.Forexample,acakemanufacturerdiversifiesintoafresh juice manufacturer. This diversification is in the sameindustrywhichisthefoodindustry.In unrelated diversification, there are usually no previous industry relations or market experiences.Onecandiversifyfromafoodindustrytoamechanicalindustryforinstance.

A good example of the unrelated diversification is Richard Branson. He took advantage of the virgin brand and diversified into various fields such as entertainment, air andrailtravel foods etc. Another example is the Easyjet which has diversified into car rentals,gyms,fast foods and hotels. Though diversification may be risky, with an equal balance between risk and reward, then the strategycanbehighlyrewarding.Anotheradvantageofdiversification is thatincaseonebusinesssuffersfromadversecircumstancestheotherlineofbusinesses maynotbeaffected.

Hybridapproaches
	
Whenmultiplepreviouslymentionedstrategiesareusedatonce. Mostcommonandpracticalone.
An example is the MpMan - digital audio player (manufactured in South Korea), multiple companiesattemptedtocapturethegrowingMp3playermarket

Therelativesuccessof pioneeringandinnovative strategies
	
James Dyson Vacuum Cleaner is an example of pioneering strategy. Research shows that the majority of product and service pioneers rarely reach market dominance due to being unable to capitalise. Sony’s Betamax failure to capture market dominance is another high profile example of an imitator such as JVC achievingmarketsuccess.Innovationisachieved whentheproducthasbeensuccessfulinthemarketplace.

Corporatesocial responsibility
	
Corporate social responsibility is a form of self-regulation for a company that centres around the development of goals related to three areas: economic; social; and environmental. A corporate strategy within a company's strategic vision for the future includes responsibility for its actions, socially, ethically and environmentally. (Economic, Social,Environmental).E.g.BenandJerry'sicecream.

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Comparisonofsuccess betweenpioneeringand imitativestrategies
	
Theimitativestrategyaimstodevelopaproductsimilartothe'pioneered'productasquickly as possible. It takes advantage of all the R&D invested by others. Pioneering involves charting a new or innovative course; whereas, imitative strategies is to create a product basedonafewexistingideas.
Facebook,LegoandSonyWalkmanasanexample?

Whatistheresultofahybrid strategy
	
If a company has a hybrid corporatestrategyitwilladoptanexpensiveandriskypioneering strategyforsomeproductsandacheaperandsafeimitativestrategyforothers.

Whatistheaimofcorporate socialresponsibility
	
Refers to a company's approachforthefuture.Ofteninvolvesanassessmentofthecurrent situation and mapping of the policies and procedures to achieve predetermined goals." -goals may be long term or short term, production-based, environmental, financial or competition.
The designer/company needs to consider the ethical implications of imitating the products of others and their implications on cultural, economic, and intellectual property level. Examples include use of Leather/fur, Animal testing (body shop/cosmetics), Labour camps/Sweatjobs,FairTrade,etc.

Notes:

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9.2MarketSectorsandSegments

Designers must research and consider the target market sectors and segments in the designoftheirproducts.Designersmust consider the market when targeting their product, service or system. The smaller the sector, the more the target audiencewill have in common. Companies may decide tocompeteinthewholemarketoronlyinsegmentsthatareattractiveand/orfamiliar. Adesigner’sunderstandingoftheidentifiedmarketisessential.

Generalmarketsectors
	
Abroadwayofcategorizingthekindsofmarketthecompanyisaimingfor. e.g.educationormedical

Geographicalsectors
	
Geographical sectors identify purchases in a particular region. Characteristics might be region, value and cultural-specific. Consumers’ needs vary from one climatic region to another.
eg.durianflavouredOreoinSouthEastAsia,greenteaKitkatinJapan

Clientbasedsectors
	
Focus on consumers, whether they be individuals or groups, industryrelated,commercialor governmentrunenterprises.e.g.teachersornurses

Massmarket
	
Produced on a large scale, a product that is availabletoalargeamountofpeopleandcanbe used by anyone. Available as a 'Global brand'e.g. Franchise food brand: McDonald, KFC, starbucks,Apple,Samsung,LG

Marketsegments
	
Markets divide into smaller segments where the purchasershavesimilarcharacteristicsand tastes. Consumers within market segments are identified as having similar characteristics. eg.commercialanddomestic(furniture)

Couldalsoinclude:
-Geographic Segmentation: Country, climate (temperature and humidity range), environment,location,areathatproductwillbeused/sold

-Psychographic Segmentation:Usersspecificneedssuchasattitudes,behaviourandvalues. Is it about educating people, empowering society, changing attitude of people(couldinclude theUWCmissionstatement)e.g.eco-fans

-Demographic Segmentation: Average agerangeofuser,skilllevel,gender,income,lifestyle, profession,family,etc.n

ProductFamily
	
Agroupofproductshavingcommonclassificationcriteria.Membersnormallyhavemany commonpartsandassemblies.Somecompaniesmanufactureagroupofrelatedgoodsor services,theyareoftengroupedtogetherunderthetitleofa‘productfamily’.e.g.Apple products(iPhone6has2sizes),BMWcars,Kenwoodhouseholdproducts,Dysonproducts.

Productfamilyencouragesconsumerstopurchaseotherproductsintherangeiftheyhave hadapositiveexperiencewiththebrand. Aproductfamilyisagroupofproductsthathaveacommonclassificationcriteria.Members ofaproductfamilynormallyhavemanycommonpartsandassemblies,arebranded consistentlyandshareaestheticcharacteristics.

Designersoftendevelopproductfamiliestoextendasuccessfulproductrangeandto developproductsformarketsegmentsthatarealreadyfamiliarwiththeoriginalproduct.E.g. iPhone,iPad,iTouch

Notes:

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9.3MarketingMix

Empathy for, and understanding of the target audience is developed through thorough analysis of the market chosen. This informs several factors: thestandardsthatendusersdemand;howandwheretodistributeandselltheproduct;howmuchthey are willing to payforacertainproductanditsquality;andhowtocommunicatethelaunchofaproduct.Correctanalysisofthese factorscoulddeterminethesuccessorfailureofaproduct,despiteitsquality.

MarketingMix-4P’s
	
Four factors identified through market research that provide the designer withanaccurate briefofmarketrequirements.
The4P'sare:
-Product:Variety,Quality,Design,PackageandBrand
-Place:Distribution,Delivery,RetailLocations,DownloadandLogistics -Price:Retailofproduct(seeSettingPricebelow)
-Promotion: The ways that can be used to communicate information about a product or system to consumers and otherinterestedparties.Promotionstrategiesinclude“abovethe line” (mass advertising) and “below the line” (targeted advertising). Examples include Discount, Bonuses, Advertising, Personal Selling, Sales Promotion, Public Relations, Sponsorship,SalesCalls,Brochures,Emails,PaymentPlansandCreditTerms

Whyisamarketingmix importanttospecifictarget marketgroups?
	
Standards the end users demand; how and where the product will be used, how it will be distributed and sold and how much the consumer is willingtopayforacertainproductand quality, and how the product will be communicated or launched. Correct analysis of these factorscoulddeterminethesuccessandfailureofaproduct,despiteitsquality.

ProductStandardisation
	
State-based legislation to guarantee quality, safety and reduce potential risks for theuser. Allowforinterchangeabilityofcomponents.Supportglobalisation.

Place:Whatarethe implicationsofinternetselling foracompanyinrelationtoits supplychainanddistribution network?
	
Overheads (rent, capital, land) are reduced. Companies will only carry little stock and place ordersthroughsuppliersonaneedsonlybasis.

SettingPrice
	
There are 4 types of pricing strategies: demand, competitor-based, product line, and psychologicalpricing.
Demand pricing: Where the different products fromthesameproductrangearepositioned at different price points. A pricing strategy where acompanywillsetthepricebasedonthe demand for the product. Could be set by how much a customer values the product (Rarity, scarcityandprestigiousbrandingcontributetohigherpricing)
Competitor pricing: Monitoring competitor’s pricing, and offering lower prices to increase demand
Product line pricing: The offering of add ons to improve or vary the product maximises profitsbyincreasingsales.
Psychological pricing:Whereaproductispricedtogivetheimpressionthatitispayingless. Forexample,pricingat€1.99insteadof€2i.e.makingapricelookbetter.
Cost-plus strategy: A pricing strategy where a company will add a percentage to the total costsincurredforaproduct(production,design,distributionetc.)

Competition-basedpricing strategy
	
Apricingstrategywhereaproductispositionedinthemarketbasedonthepriceofsimilar products/competitors.Thecompanywillpositiontheproductbypricingitlower,similaror higherthansimilarproducts.

Whatisthepurposeof promotion?
	
Thewaysthatcanbeusedtocommunicateinformationaboutaproductorsystemto consumersandotherinterestedparties.Encouragingconsumertomakeapositivebuying choice. Raiseproductawarenesstoincreasesales

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9.4MarketingResearch

Market research is anyorganizedefforttogatherinformationaboutmarketsorcustomers.Marketresearchoftenidentifieshow to improve the product, service or system and increase its chance of success within a particular sector or segment.Thepricea user is prepared to pay is usually determined through market research. Thisinturnsetsanupperlimitofcosttothedesignand production of a potential product, service orsystem.Marketresearchhasacrucialroleindeterminingtheconstraintsadesigner hastoworkwithin.

Purposeofmarketresearch
	
The purpose of market research includes idea generation and development; evaluating market potential and economic trends; collecting data relating to demographics, family roles,consumers;identifyingsuitablepromotional strategies;consideringtechnologicaltrendsandscientificadvances

Marketresearchstrategies
	
Market researchisthesystematicgatheringofdataaboutindividualsororganisationsusing statistical analysis and techniques to support decision making. Strategiesincludeliterature search, expert appraisal, user trial, user research, perceptual mapping and environmental scanning.
Advantages:informationcomesauthoritativesources
Disadvantages: early markets are volatile and unpredictable, unreliable for innovative products

Primarydatacollection
	
Data observed or collected directly from first-hand experience. Large Scale Primary data collectioncanbeverycostlybutvitallyimportantandmoreaccuratethansecondarydata.

Secondarydatacollection
	
Published data and the data collectedinthepastorbyotherparties.Secondarydatacanbe veryvaluableespeciallyintermsofdemographics,ergonomicsandoverallmarketanalysis.

Qualitative
	
Datathatispersonaltoindividualse.g.comfort,taste,etc.

Quantitative
	
Datawithnumbers/statistics

Literaturesearch
	
The use of consumer reports, newspaper, magazines, encyclopaedias, manufacturers information,etctoconductresearchandfollowhistoricaldevelopment.
Useful sources of information could include internet, DVD, Encyclopedia,newspaper,Which UKConsumerwebsite,manufacturersinformationandspecificationofproducts.

Expertappraisal
	
The reliance ontheknowledgeandskillsofanexpertintheoperationoftheproduct.Canbe biasandalsosometimesdifficulttolocateanexpert.

Usertrial
	
The observation of people using a product and collection of comments from people who have used a product. Is done in a laboratory, usually with hidden cameras or data loggers which record the interaction between the user and product. Is useful to identify usability issuesbutcanbeexpensivetorun.

Userresearch
	
Obtaining users’ responses through questionnaires/surveys and interviews. Involves the questioningofusersregardingtheirexperiencesandopinionsofaproduct.
Methods typically include questionnaire, user diaries, interviews and focus groups. It is generallyeasytocollectdataandrelativelycheap.

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Perceptualmapping
	
Perceptual mapping is a tool to quickly compare a product to others in the market in a graphical representation. This graphic marketing tool is used to show how something is regarded, understood or interpreted, by identifying the relationships between competing products, buying choices and future recommendations by consumers.Typicallytheposition of a product, product line,or brand, of a company is displayed relative to their competition. Anexampleshownbelow:

Environmentalscanning
	
Environmental scanning is the studyandinterpretationofthepolitical,economic,socialand technological events and trends which influence a business, an industry or even a total market.

Consumers’reactionto technology
	
-Technophiles is someone who immediately welcomes a technological change. Early adopters of technology. Prepared to pay premium for early entry into the market just to acquiretheproduct.

-Technophobe is someone who resists all technological change.Notcomfortablewithnew ways of working and often subscribe to the theorythatwhattheycurrentlyhaveisenough fortheirneeds.

-Technocautious is someone who needs some convincing before embracing technological change. Tend to wait for improvements in technology. They may not feel comfortable with newwaysofworking,andoftenremainwithwhat’sexisting.

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Consumers’reactiongreen design
	
-Eco-warriors actively demonstrate on environmental issues (Greenpeace). Care for the naturalworldintheirdailylivesanddecision-making.

-Eco-fans enthusiastically adopt environmentally friendly practices as consumers.Seek to help others in applyingthesesameprinciples.Aimtospreadthepracticeofenvironmentally friendlyconsumptionandlifestyle.

-Eco-champions are influentialpeoplethatcanusetheirpositiontoinfluencecertainissues withinanorganisation(oftenartists,moviestars,etc.)

-Eco-phobes actively resent talk of environment protection. Objectifytheenvironmentand see it as a machine that produces resourcesandenergyfortheuseandcontrolofmankind. Champion technological solutions	to problems, see environmental protection as an inefficiencythatonlyincreasescompanycosts,causesdelaysandreducesprofitability.

Marketresearchstrategies
	
Advantages and disadvantages of each market research strategy considering the nature, reliabilityandcostoftheresearchandimportancetothedesigndevelopmentprocess.

Somestrategiesinclude: -	Expertappraisal -	UserTrial
-	ConsumerSurveys
-	Patentinvestigations -	Literaturescanning
-	CompetitionorSWOTanalyses

New product development involves manufacturers exploring the needs of the market and developingappropriateproductsinresponse.

Marketresearch,dataandanalysisbymanufacturersthatmayinvolve: -	CompetitorProductAnalysis
-	Usertrialstotestproductacceptance
-	“What-if”scenariosevaluatingproductprofitability
-	Investigationofunfilledoralternativenicheopportunities -	Marketdynamicanalysis
-	Usersurveysandinterviewsfocusingisoncustomerbuyinghabitsandattitudes
-	 Targeting existing customers to gather their views on an existing product to seek waysofimprovement.

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9.5Branding

In order to diffuse products into the marketplace, the identity of a company is typically embodied in a brand. The brand is communicated to the consumer through a value proposition. Designers help to communicate this by: building a strong user experience around the brand identity; determining content design; establishing the tone of message through advertisements and promotion. Branding creates an identity for a product or company, which makes it distinct from another and can provide addedvalue.

Brand
	
Abrandisatypeofproductmanufacturedbyaparticularcompanyunderaparticularname. Thecompanynameoftheorganizationcanalsoserveasabrand. E.g.Lego,Nestle,Dyson,Apple

Brandloyalty
	
Whenapersonhasthetendencytofavouronesupplieroverothersforthesameproduct. ForexamplepeoplewhojusttendtostickwithAppleproducts-notevenlookat/consider alternativechoices.

Howbrandsappealto differentmarketsegments
	
Theyidentifythetraitsofspecificmarketsegmentshencebeingabletopreciselymeetthe needsoftheidentifiedgroup.

e.g.Mujistores(Minimaliststyle-sosegmentisdictatedbyfashionstyle Prada,LouisVuitton(VeblenGoodstoshowhighsocialclass)

Thedifferencebetweena trademarkandregistered design/patent
	
™-Trademark orRegisteredDesign®-Atrademarkisalogo,symbol,word,orwords legallyregisteredorestablishedbyuseasrepresentingacompanyorproduct.e.g.Nike swooshlogo,applelogo,'Justdoit'

Patent:Intellectualpropertymarkthatprotectsaproduct'sappearanceorit'stechnology. Thisreferstothefeaturesoftheproduct'sshape,configuration,patternorornamentation whichisnewanddistinctive.Theexclusiverightsgrantedtoapatenteeinmostcountries (notall)istherighttopreventothersfrommaking,using,selling,ordistributingthe patentedinvention/imitatingtheappearance/technologyoftheproductwithout permission.

Theimplicationsforacompany ofpositiveandnegative publicityonbrandimage
	
Positiveornegativepublicityfromoneproductcanhaveanimpactonthewholebrand.If oneproductdoesbadly,consumersmayhaveabadimpressionofthebrand.Thiswill discourageconsumersfrompurchasingfromthisbrandinthefuture.

Negativeimpact-CliveSinclair:eventhoughtheircomputermanufacturingwassuccessful, theyinventedanewpersonaltransportsolutionanditwaspoorlyconceived.Duetothat, leadtoamassivedeclineinsalesofallsinclairproducts.

Positiveimpact-VirginAtlantic:RichardBranson’sactivitieshavehelpedtoprovidepositive perceptionsofthecompany.

Contributionofpackagingto brandidentity
	
Packagingcanhaveabigimpactonbrandidentity.Thefinalvisiblepackagingtothe customeroftheproductmustalignwiththebrand'sethosandsupportbrandidentity.

Evaluatingtheglobalimpact ofbranding
	
Apple,Adidas,Starbucks,Nike,Toyota,etc. Providesasenseofbelongingtoaglobalcommunity.Maybeevena cult/fashion/trend/lifestyle.Theproductbrandwillbecomeassociatedwithsuccessand quality.

updated22ndFeb2016-J.Zobrist

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ExamplesofQuestions

1.
	
Themarketingmixor4Psiscomposedof

A. planning,preparation,policy,particulars B. product,price,place,promotion
C. presentation,permanence,placement,price D. propaganda,percentiles,producing,price.

2.
	
Psychologicalpricingengenders

A. useofallfivesenses
B. aphysiologicalresponse
C. priceperceptionontheconsumer'spart D. priceexaggerationontheconsumer'spart.

3.
	
Marketresearchisconductedto

A. reducewaste
B. checkthesuccessofaproduct
C. meetmanufacturingrequirements
D. bestmatchproductdevelopmentwithconsumerneeds

4.
	
Brandloyaltyisbestexpressedwhen

A. consumerspurchaseonlybrandnameproducts
B. consumersspeakpositivelyaboutaproducttoothers C. consumersaccruepointsbasedonbrandpurchases
D. consumerscontinuetomakepurchasingdecisionsbasedonabrandnameirrespectiveofprice.

5.
	
Discusstheadvantagesanddisadvantagesassociatedwithcorporateresponsibilityprograms. (4marks)

Advantages:
●	Improvescompanyimageinthemarket
●	Createsethicallyandenvironmentallyconsideratecorporations-thereforebeneficialtosociety ●	Providesadistinctionforconsumersawayfromcompany’smajorbusinessarea
●	Increasetransparency,accountability-bettercustomerrelations-Brandloyalty Disadvantages:
●	Couldbeexpensive/takeexcesstime/resourcestocompletetheseprogrammes
●	 Theymayincompletedinvainandbeasoletoolofmarketingtopromoteacompany,ratherhaveanyreal impact

6.
	
Explaintheuseandpurposeofperceptualmapsinmarketing. (2marks)

Perceptual maps serve as a visual representation of the sectors in a market in ordertocreateamarketingstrategythat hasacompetitiveedge.Allowsformarketdiversification,andinnovationtogeneratemoreinterest/profit

Itisatooltoquicklycompareaproducttoothermarketsinagraphicalrepresentationwheretheycanviewtheirposition inthemarketandchangeaccordingly/allowsdesignerstoanalyzeconsumerpurchasestrends.

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7.
	
Explainthedifferencesbetweenproductdevelopmentandproductdiversification. (4marks)

ProductDevelopmentistheiterativeprocessofimprovingaproductbasedonaspectssuchasmarketresearch,changes intrendsandmore.Productdevelopmentinvolvestheintroductionofanewproductintoamarketortheimprovementof existingones.

Productdiversificationistheexpansionofaproductfamily/company’sproductrangetoappealtoalargermarket audience.Productdiversificationinvolvesthemodificationofanexistingproductsothatitsmarketpotentialcanincrease. Forexample,Applemaking2screensizesfortheiPhone.

8.
	
Explainwhycompaniesadoptanimitationstrategyratherthandevelopingnewproductsoftheirown. (2marks)

Savesmoneyonresearchanddevelopmentandalsothereductionwithdesignanddevelopmenttimehencelowers overallcostwhichleadstoapossiblehigherprofit.

9.
	
Explainhowcompaniesmaybrandsimilarproductstomeetdifferentmarketsegments. (4marks)

●	 Haveauniquebrandingstrategysothattheycanappealtodifferentmarketgroupsandattractexistingmarket groupstoinnovativeideas.
●	 Createdifferentsetsofproductfamiliestoappealtodifferentpartsofthemarket,suchasiWatchEditionand otheriwatchrangestoappealtothosewithdifferentstyles/socioeconomicabilitiesandmore
●	 Canleadtoproductdiversificationassamebrandisabletoberecognisedbyalargeraudienceduetoitsproduct diversification
●	 Theyidentifythetraitsofspecificmarketsegments,hencebeingabletopreciselymeettheneedsofthe identifiedgroup.RichardBransondiversifieshiscompanytoproducenotonlyintheairlineindustrybutalso food,railway,etc.

10.
	
Compareandcontrasttheactivitiesofmarketingandadvertising.(4marks)

Advertising is the interaction between the products and the consumer, and understanding how tobestplaceproductsin ordertoincreasesalesbyengagingwiththeconsumerinacertainway.

Marketing encompasses advertising, however it is more about the brand strategy, and commercial development of the companyasawhole,ratherthanspecificproducts.

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Topic10 CommercialProduction

10.1JustinTime&JustinCase

Just in timeandjustincaseareopposingproductionstrategiesutilizedbythemanufacturer.Whileinventorycreatesasafetynet for companies, maintenance and potential waste of resources can have significant implications for companies and the environment. Manufacturers must evaluate and analyse each market and determine whether a JIT or JICstrategyisthebestto follow.

AdvantagesofJIT
	
DisadvantagesofJIT

-Productiontoorderwithmaterialsbeing suppliedJITcutsdownonstoragespace
-Reducedcapitalinvestmentascapitalisnot tiedupinunusedrawmaterialsorunsold products.
-Reducedworkinprogress -Increasedefficiency
-Improvedstockcontrol
	
-Ifanyofthestockisfaultythenmore hastobeorderedfromasupplierwhich couldslowdowntheleadtimeand productionprocess.
-Companiesmaynotbenefitfor economiesofscaleiftheyare purchasingsmallerquantities.

Justintime(JIT)andjustincase (JIC)
	
JIT and JIC are two production strategies used by manufacturers that have both advantages and disadvantages to them. A manufacturing company will choose one of these strategies to follow for many reasons thatincludetheproductstheyareproducing, thenatureofthemarketandthenatureoftheeconomy.

Justintime(JIT)
	
A situation where a company does not allocate space to the storage of components or completed items, but instead orders or manufacturesthemwhenrequired.Largestorage areasarenotneededanditemsthatarenotorderedbycustomersarenotmade.

Justincase(JIC)
	
A situation where a companykeepsasmallstockofcomponentsorproductsoronesthat takealongtimetomake,justincaseofarushorder.

AdvantagesofJIC
	
DisadvantagesofJIC

-Preventionofwasteandoverproduction -Overheadsareloweraswarehousespace andinventoriesareless
-Everycustomerbecomesasale
-Themanufacturerhasa“buffer’ofgoodsin stockincaseofunforeseencircumstances; e.g.nondelivery ofsupplies
-Themanufacturercanrespondquicklytoa demandforaproduct
	
-Shopownershavetoholdalotof inventory
-Alargeinvestmentatthestartof business
-Itoccupiesalotofspace,whichcan beexpensive
-Theseproductsmightspoilleadingto waste
-Iftrendschangeyoucouldbeleftwith

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-Themanufacturercanproduceasteady flowofproductandhaveastableworkforce -LesscapitalcoststhanJITe.g.information and communicationtechnologysystems, stockcontrolsystems.
-Abletostockpilesuppliesorfinished products.
	
alotofunsellableproducts

Notes:

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10.2Leanproduction

Lean production aims to eliminate waste and maximize the value of a product based on the perspective oftheconsumer.Lean production considers product and process design as an ongoing activity and not a one-off task, and should be viewed as a long-termstrategy.

Leanproduction
	
Lean production considers product and process design as an ongoing activity and not a one-off task. It should be viewed as a long-term strategy that focuses on continual feedbackandincrementalimprovement.

Thecharacteristicsoflean productioninclude:
	
1-JITsupplies:GettingtherightamountofmaterialtotheproductionlineJustInTime.
2 -Highlytrainedmulti-skilledworkforce:Havingexpertsinplacetoensurethatnotime iswasted.
3 - Quality control and continuous improvement: Checks are made at every stage of production to quickly identify and fix any problems that arise. Improvements to the systemareactivelysought.
4 - Zero defects: Ensure that time, material and energy are not wasting producing a sub-standardproduct.
5-Zeroinventory:ProductsaremanufacturedJustInTimetobesold.

10principlesofleanproduction.
	
1.Eliminatingwaste 2.Minimizinginventory 3.Maximizingflow
4.Pullingproductionfromcustomerdemand 5.Meetingcustomerrequirements 6.Doingitrightfirsttime 7.Empoweringworkers 8.Designingforrapidchangeover 9.Partneringwithsuppliers
10.Creatingacultureofcontinuousimprovement(Kaizen)

Kaizen
	
A culture of continuous improvement originating in Japan and considered an important aspect of an organization's long-term strategy. It is a philosophy and commitment to continuousprocessandproductimprovement.

Valuestreammapping
	
Value stream mapping, also known as ‘end-to-end’ is a visual aid to map relationship between materials, processes, information and time. It allows company managers to plan the manufacture of a product from start (purchaseofrawmaterials)tomanufacture (processes and systems) to distribution (export,towarehouse)andfinallytotheend(sale tocustomer).Itisusedto identifypotentialproblemsinthesystem.
This ‘big picture’ view provides production managers withthenecessaryoverviewtoplan where they can make improvements to the process in order to speed it up.Itcanalsobe used as a tool used to analyse current and future processes for the production of a productthroughtodeliverytotheconsumer.

Workflowanalysis
	
Workflow analysis supports value stream mapping as it classifies all tasks in a manufacturing process. It is the review by production managers of processes in a workflow, in order to identify potential improvements. Workflow analysis considers the sequence, tools and even worker movement to ensure the highest possible efficiency in thesystem.

Considerhowvaluestream mappingandworkflowanalysis contributetoaneffectivelean productionmethod.
	
Where value stream mapping provides a ‘big picture’ of the manufacturing process, workflowanalysisisconcernedwiththedetailsoftheproductionline.

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Roleoftheworkforce
	
Theroleoftheworkforceinleanproductionmustfocusonthesethreeareas; •Training
•Devolutioninpowerrelatingtoprocessimprovement •Kaizen
The development of a highly skilled workforce can build deep understanding of how the production process works and allowworkersatalllevelstoidentifyareasoftheworkflow tobeimproved.Understandingthatthebestpeopletoidentifyimprovementsofaproduct or system are those who use it, companies striving for a lean production system ensure that all members of the workforceareabletocontributetothedesignofthesystem.This benefits the company, which is able to streamline processes and reduce costs and also empowers the workforce and gives them a sense of ownership and loyalty to the company.

Kanban
	
Kanbanisawayofmanagingknowledge(andorinthiscasestock,ordersandquality). OnewayinwhichKanbanisusedifforpartsbins.Whenthepartsbinreachesalowlevel (forexample20left)theKanbanlabelissubmittedtotheaccountsdepartmentto automaticallyorderanddeliveranotherbatchofpartsjustintime.

ProductFamily
	
In terms of lean production, a product family is a group of products using similar processing methods. E.g. CNC machining forApplelaptopandiMacscreenandkeyboards allfromaluminium.
The concept of standardised specificationsorcomponentsorassemblieswithinaproduct family or associated brands allows companies to create a competitive advantage. Often based around ‘product platform’ or ‘standardised architecture’ a product family gives the manufacturer the opportunity to produce customised or alternative designs through the addition,subtractionorsubstitutionorparts.Advantagesofaproductfamilyinclude:
●	Increasedmodularity ●	Reduceddesigneffort
●	Reducedtimetomarketforproducts ●	Lessmanufacturingprocesses
●	Reductionofthenumberofsuppliersneeded ●	Lessdiversityofstockmaterial
●      Wastefromoneproductcanbeusedtomanufactureadifferentproduct ●      Easilyadaptproductiontomeetdemandforaparticularfamilymember

Leadtime
	
The time between the initiation and the execution of a process. The time quoted to customers (usually in days or weeks) between the date of purchase and the date of deliveryoffinalproduct.
Leadtime=sumofallprocesses+sumofalldelays(queuetimesbetweenprocesses)

The5Ssisaformalapproachto cleaningandorganizingthe workplaceinvolvingfive processes:
	
1. sorting
2. stabilizing 3. shining
4. standardizing
5. sustainingthepractice.

Thesevenwastesare:
	
1. overproduction 2. waiting
3. transporting
4. inappropriateprocessing 5. unnecessaryinventory
6. unnecessary/excessmotion 7. defects.

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AdvantagesofLeanProduction
	
DisadvantagesofLeanProduction

•Minimiseswaste(andtherefore reducescost) •Lessimpactontheenvironment •Quicklyadaptabletomarket pushes •Littlecapitalistiedupinraw materialorunsoldstock •Increasedautonomyforworkers -leadingtohighermoral
	
•Oneprobleminproductionstopsthewhole process •Manufacturersrelyonsuppliers,onemistake bythemhaltsproduction •Moresuitableforlargescaleproduction •Whenacertainlevelofrefinementismet, usingleanmethodstosqueezemoreeconomy fromproductioncandiscourageworkers, reversingpositivemotivationandundermining yourleadership.
	
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Advantagesanddisadvantages ofLeanproduction

Notes:

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AdvantagesofCIM
	
DisadvantagesofCIM

•Complexproductsonlargescale productionrunsareefficiently manufactured •Veryflexiblesystemasitiseasytoset theautomation
•Suitable for batch production where repetitivepatternsoroperationsoccur. •Relativelylowmaintenance
	
•HighInvestment •Smallerplantsemploying non-repetitive,specialised
manufacturingoperationshavefound lessuseforCIM
	
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10.3Computerintegratedmanufacturing(CIM)

Computer-integrated manufacturing uses computers to automatically monitor and control the entire production of a product. When considering design for manufacture (DfM), designers should be able to integrate computers from the earliest stage of design. This requires knowledge and experience of the manufacturing processes available to ensure integration is efficientand effective. Through the integration of computers the rate of production can be increased and errors in manufacturing can be reducedoreliminated,althoughthemainadvantageistheabilitytocreateautomatedmanufacturingprocesses.

Computer-integrated manufacture(CIM)
	
CIM is a system of manufacturing that uses computers to integrate the processing of production,businessandmanufacturinginordertocreatemoreefficientproductionlines. CIM systems can monitor all operations from raw materials intake to final product marketing.

Integrating computers facilitates sharing of data to create a more flexible and efficient manufacturingsystem.

Computer- integrated manufacture (CIM) takes the concept of integration of separate manufacturing technologies and combines these with all aspects of a company's operations, not just those that are directly involved in manufacture. UnderaCIMsystem, allteamscansharethesameinformationandeasilycommunicatewithoneanother.

A CIM system uses computer networks to integrate the processing of production and business information with manufacturing operations to create cooperative and efficient runningproductionlines.CIMsystemscontrolandlinkthefollowingcomponents

ThetasksperformedwithinCIMwillinclude: ●	Personnel
●	Marketing
●	ProductDesign(CAD)
●	ComputerManagement(Materialshandling,planning,manufacturing ●	MachinetoolsandEquipment(CAM)
●	Purchasing(costaccounting) ●	Distribution(inventorycontrol)

Whenconsideringthe advantagesanddisadvantages ofCIM

CIMcanbeappliedtodifferent scalesofproduction.
	
Consider the advantages and disadvantages of CIM in relation to different production systems.

Flexiblemanufacturingsystem (FMS)
	
A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a manufacturing system in which there is some amount of flexibility that allows the system to react in case of changes, whether predicted orunpredicted.Thisflexibilityisgenerallyconsideredtofallintotwocategories, which both contain numerous subcategories. Benefits of using a flexible manufacturing system(FMS)
-increasedproductivityduetoautomation
-shorterleadtimesfornewproductsduetoflexibility -lowerlabourcostsduetoautomation
-improvedproductionqualityduetoautomation

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10.4Qualitymanagement

Quality management focuses on producing products of consistent required quality. Designers should ensure that thequalityof products is consistent through development of detailed manufacturing requirements. They also need to focus onthemeansto achieve it. The importance of quality management through quality control (QC), statistical process control (SPC) and quality assurance(QA)reducesthepotentialwasteofresources.

Qualitycontrol
	
Involved in development systems to ensure that products or services are designed and producedtomeetorexceedcustomerrequirementsandexpectations.
Tolerances are defined at the design stage of the machinery. Parts not within tolerance need to be reworked or scrapped. Continuous monitoring ensures that the machines perform to the predetermined standard to produce quality product. Qualitycontrolatthe source eliminates waste from defects as workers are responsible for the quality of the worktheydo.

Statisticalprocesscontrol
	
SPCisappliedinordertomonitorandcontrolaprocess.Thisisaqualitycontroltoolthat uses statistical methods to ensure that a process operates at its most efficient (within defined fields). Thisisachievedthroughmeasuringaspectsofacomponenttoensurethat itmeetstherequiredstandardthroughoutitsproductioninordertoeliminatewaste.

E.g. At the beginning of a process it is a waste of time and money to begin production process with bad supplies before a costly or irreversible point, after which the productis difficult to rework or correct before and after assembly or paintingoperationsthatmight cover defects before the outgoing final product or service isdelivered.Bymonitoringthe various parts of a process, stages are highlighted and the can be adjusted in order to maintain conformity and quality of output and reduce costs, improve productivity, real-time decisions, reduce product variability and scrap, uncovers hidden process abnormalitieswhichimprovesreactiontimestoprocessthechangesneeded.

Qualityassurance.
	
This covers all activities from design to documentation. It also includestheregulationof quality of raw materials, assemblies, products and components, services related to production,andmanagementandinspectionprocesses.

Differencesbetween QAvsQC
	
QAisprocessorientedwhileQCisproductoriented.

QAdealsindevelopingprocessesandsystemsthatalignwithQMS. QContheotherhanddealswithmonitoringproducts.
E.g. a QA engineer would develop a quality plan based on customer requirements and a QC engineer would monitor and ensure that all requirements of the quality plan are met duringmanufacturing.
A QA engineer may be involved in developing packaging & shipping requirements or provide quality specifications to purchasing. The QCengineerwouldonlyfocusonmaking sureproductmeetstherequirementsofqualityplanassetbyQA.
QA is the part of QM focussed on providing confidence that quality requirements will be fulfilled
QCisthepartofQMfocussedonfulfillingqualityrequirements

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10.5Economicviability

Designers must consider the economic viability of their designs for them to gain a place in the market. Designers need to consider how the costs of materials, manufacturing processes, scale of production and labour contribute to the retail cost of a product. Strategies for minimizing these costs at the design stage are most effective to ensurethataproductisaffordableand cangainafinancialreturn.

Costeffectiveness.
	
Is the most efficient way of designing and producing a product from the manufacturer’s pointofview.

Valueformoney
	
Istherelationshipbetweenwhataproductisworthandwhatitcosts.
It is important to note the difference between cost and price. For a product to achieve profit, the price ofaproducthastobehigherthanitscost.Costsincludefixedandvariable costs involved in designing and manufacturing the product, and getting it to the point of sale.

Costingvs.pricing
	
Price is how much consumers are willing and able to pay for certain goods and services. Costishowmuchittakestoproducegoodsandservices.

Fixedcosts
	
Are the costs that must be paid out before production starts, for example, machinery. Thesecostsdonotchangewiththelevelofproduction.

Fixedcostsincludeallthecoststhatmustbepaidoutbeforeproductionstarts;
e.g. design costs, set up/tooling costs, marketing; initial set-up/tooling costs will behigh for first model but may beabletousesametoolingandthusreducecostsforsubsequent models; design for manufacture will reducefixedcosts;R&Dfixedcostswillbeveryhigh inordertodevelopnewproductsregularly;

Variablecosts
	
Fixedcostsarethecoststhatmustbepaidoutbeforeproductionstarts. Arecoststhatvarywithoutput,forexample,fuelorrawmaterial. Variablecostsincludeallthecoststhatvarywiththevolumeofproduction;
e.g. materials, energy; lightweighting will reduce amount of material required and could reduce variable costs; variablelabourcostscanbereducedbysettingupmanufacturingin countrieswithrelativelycheaplabour;

Costanalysis
	
Cost Analysis involves the examination andevaluationoftheseparateelementsofcost including profit. It is a tool usedtodeterminethepotentialrisksandgainsofproducinga product. It is used by manufacturers to determine the break-evenpointforaproductand can be used tocreatemultiplescenariosforaproduct.Itallowsthefeasibilityofaproduct tobeestablished.

Canalsobeseparatedinto:
-Financial Cost Analysis: Analyses how a financial decision will impact an individual or singlecompany.
-Economic Cost Analysis: Analysis the impact ofafinancialdecisionontheeconomyasa wholeincludingtheenvironmentandsociety.

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Break-evenorBreak-evenpoint
	
Is the point of balance between profit and loss. It represents the number of sales of a productrequiredtocoverthetotalcosts(fixedandvariable).

Averagerevenueandaveragetotalcostequalstoeachother.

Break-even point: the number of products thatwillbemadetorecouptheset-upcosts;a proportion of the fixed costs will berecoupedoneachproduct;afterthebreak-evenpoint the profits of the manufacturer will increase; alternatively themanufacturercandropthe price to enhance the competitiveness of the product once fixed costs are covered; the manufacturerdetermines

Pricingsettingstrategies:

(fromT9.3)
	
DemandPricing: Wherethedifferentproductsfromthesameproductrangearepositionedat
different price points. A pricing strategy where a company will set thepricebasedonthe demand for the product. Couldbesetbyhowmuchacustomervaluestheproduct(Rarity, scarcityandprestigiousbrandingcontributetohigherpricing).

Competitorpricing: Monitoringcompetitor’spricing,andofferinglowerpricestoincreasedemand

Productlinepricing:
The offering of add ons to improve or vary the product maximises profits by increasing sales.

Psychologicalpricing:
Where a product ispricedtogivetheimpressionthatitispayingless.Forexample,pricing at€1.99insteadof€2i.e.makingapricelookbetter.

Cost-plus strategy: A pricing strategywhereacompanywilladdapercentagetothetotal costsincurredforaproduct(production,design,distributionetc.)

Competition-basedpricing; Apricingstrategywhereaproductispositionedinthemarketbasedonthepriceofsimilar products/competitors. The company willpositiontheproductbypricingitlower,similaror higherthansimilarproducts.

Price-minusstrategy
	
The opposite (retail minus) of cost-plus pricing strategy. The manufacturer will conduct user research to determine how much consumers are willing and able to pay for certain goods and services. Once companies have this information, they minus the profitmargin todeterminethepriceandworkouthowtoproduceitatthatpricepoint.

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Retailprice
	
The price at which a product is sold in a store. This price is usually double the wholesale price. E.g. Nike T-shirt costs $49.99 in a World of Sports store. Usually RRP (RecommendedRetailPrice)

Wholesaleprice
	
The price at which a good is sold to a retailer. This price is greater than what the wholesaler paid the producer but less than the price at which the retailer will sell in a store. E.g. World of Sports paid $24.99 for that Nike shirt before sellingitataretailprice of$49.99.

Typicalmanufacturingprice
	
The price required to manufacture a product. This is cheaper than the price it is soldtoa wholesaler or retailer. E.g. ItcostedNike$20tomanufacturethatNikeshirtbeforeselling ittoawholesalerat$24.99.

Targetcosts
	
A target cost is a marketing approach that assigns an appropriatepricetoaproductprior toitsproductionormanufacture.
Target costing is to enable managementtomanagethebusinesstobeprofitableinavery competitive marketplace. In effect, target costing is a proactive cost planning, cost management, and cost reductionpracticewherebycostsareplannedandmanagedoutof a product and business early in the design and developmentcycle,ratherthanduringthe laterstagesofproductdevelopmentandproduction.

Unitcost

Returnoninvestment
	
Compares a company’s profitability with a company's efficiency and is often expressed asapercentageofthenetprofits,dividedbythecostofinvestment.

Financialreturn
	
Financial return is the profit gained from an investment for the product (investment in plant, staffing, materials, marketing and associated costs surrounding the manufacture andsale).Expressedin$$$fortheprofitofbuyingandsellingstocks.

Salesvolume
	
Thenumberofquantityofgoodsorservicessold/providedoveraparticularperiodoftime

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